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appeals to the natural desire of the reason to know, and to ascertain the truth of objects as they are. It is impossible even to deny the certainty of knowledge, without some ascertained principles of knowledge, which the Sceptic himself is compelled to refer to. He lays down certain incontestible principles of this kind drawn from universal notions. These inform us, That we are; and that we are possessed of power, knowledge, and will: That our power, knowledge, and will are limited: That because we have power, knowledge, and will, these faculties must have relation to a something external and foreign to themselves. Campanella did not advance beyond these first principles, because he was satisfied that the external world was a Revelation afforded by the Divine Being (operando), which, in act, when compared with the oral Revelation of God, afforded the only satisfactory means of being convinced of the truth.

320. The great Metaphysical problem is, to explain things and their existence. To solve this Campanella begins with the axiom, That things exist and are presented to us. These appearances must be either true or false; agreeably to the obvious rule that a thing must either be, or not be; and to the laws (Primalitates) of existence and non-existence. The Primal laws of existence are, Possibility or Power (Potentia); Knowledge or Science (Sapientia), and Attraction or Love (Amor). What can be-is: what ismust be. Every thing must possess sensation or emotion, and be the object of it or of cognition; otherwise it would not exist to us. Every thing has its principle of selfpreservation, and abhors annihilation; without which it could not endure, nor energise, nor exist. The Primal laws of non-existence are Impossibility (Impotentia); Ignorance (Insipientia); and Aversion (Odium metaphysicum). The three objects of the Primal laws of existence are, Being, Truth, and Good, of which the outward token is Beauty. These principles conduct the argument up to the consideration of God; the highest Esse, or the highest Unity (Metaph. VII, 1, sqq.). Campanella then describes the attributes and operations of the Divine Unity: Necessity is the result of Power; Destiny; of Knowledge; and Harmony, of Love. He built his system of Cosmology on Theology,

as well as his theory of Pneumatology, Psychology, etc., in which he attempted to explain the nature and aim of things according to the views of the Neoplatonists and Cabbalists, as well as those of Telesius. He recognised in nature an Unity of Life (Mundum esse Dei vivam statuam); and deduced his system of Divine Justice and the laws of necessity and chance, from certain considerations on the connection between Necessity and Existence, and Nonexistence and Accident. He maintained the Existence of an Incorporeal world, and of Spirits, which put in motion the stars. The Soul is a corporeal spirit, which can recognise its own nature to be subtile, warm, and light. From its fundamental attributes, its efforts after and instinct for felicity (unattainable in this life), he demonstrated its immortality.

In his practical system, which he grounded on his Ontology, he brought forward several new ideas. The Infinite Being is the Supreme Good, the object and end of all things. Religion has revealed Him to us; and points out the way by which we may pass from the sensible to the invisible world, and to the highest perfection. It consists in the obedience to God, the love of Him, and the contemplation of things earthly and divine. Some clear views are disclosed respecting Natural and Revealed religion, Internal and External, Innate and Acquired.

321. The object of Ethical, Economical, and Political Science is, according to Campanella, the world of human volition. The aspiration of ages, as well as the penetration of Science, point to the termination of all evils; but they can only cease in the Kingdom of God, which does not admit of divisions, but unites all nations and all forms of government under the sway of the Messiah. He drew a picture of an ideal human society in the Kingdom of God, in his work Civitas Solis; and he represented this ideal as the aim of the historical development of humanity, and as shortly to be attained. He was one of the first modern Socialists.

322. The system of Campanella is to be praised rather for its negative than its positive qualities. He displayed a genuine love of the true interests of Reason in the contest

he sustained with the Aristotelian System of the Schools, with Atheism, and the false politics of Machiavelli; as well as in the manner in which he asserted the right of the Reason to attempt fresh and untried paths of Science; and his effort to start from fixed fundamental principles bears witness to his philosophic spirit. But he has shown himself unable to solve the grand problem of philosophic knowledge, by the inadequacy of his principles, the want of coherence in his system, and the slender union that subsists between his own ideas and those he has associated with them of others. It ought not, however, to be forgotten, that he had the merit of having first distinctly shown the want of a solution, and attempted to effect the same, in the interests of Rational Knowledge and Theology.

(See his Treatise, De Gentilismo non retinendo).

III. Modifications of the Ionic and Atomistic Schools. Basso, Berigard, Magnenus, Sennert, Gassendi.

323. When the Aristotelian system was laid aside as confessedly deficient, particularly with respect to Natural History, an attempt was made to revive the Ionic and Atomistic doctrines. After Sebastian Basso's' attack on the Physics of Aristotle (see Bibliography § 143) many others came forward to revive ancient doctrines or propose new ones. Claude de Guillemert de Bérigard advanced a theory, on the Eclectic plan, borrowed partly from the Ionians, and partly from the Atomic philosophers, and maintained that it was conformable to the Christian system, while he opposed the Aristotelian hypothesis of an original Matter." Another Frenchman, Jean Chrysostome Magnenus,* recommended the system of Nature of Democritus, as affording

1 About 1621.

2 Or Beauregard; born at Moulins 1578; died at Padua 1667, or later.

3 CIRCULI PISANI, seu de Veterum et Peripatetica Philosophia Dialogi, Udin. 1643-47, 4to. Patav. 1661.

4 Born at Luxevil, and professor of Medicine at Pavia; the author of Democritus Reviviscens, sive Vita et Philosophia Democriti, Ticini, 1646, 12mo. Lugd. Bat. 1648; et Hag. Com. 1658, 12mo.

an adequate solution of natural phenomena. Dav. Sennert also attempted to remodel Physics on the principles of Democritus. He maintained that Form and Matter are independent of each other, and asserted that souls were created by the Divine Being out of nothing; which brought him into a dispute with J. Freitag (a professor at Gröningen), in which he was defended by his disciple J. Sperling. Pietro Gassendi, styled by Gibbon "the most learned of the philosophers of his age, and the most philosophical of the learned," undertook to defend and review with impartiality the system of Epicurus, which he asserted had not yet been done. He distinguished himself by his discoveries in Mathematics, Physics, and Philosophy, in all of which he displayed great judgment and learning; and was a redoubtable adversary of Aristotle, Fludd, and Descartes." With a laudable love of truth, he drew a true picture of the life and character of Epicurus, and illustrated his philosophy, without concealing the faults he had committed in respect

8

1 Born at Breslau 1572; died 1637.

2 DAN. SONNERTI Hypomnemata Physica de Rerum Naturalium Principiis, Francof. 1635-36, 12mo. Physica, Viteb. 1618, 8vo. Opera Omnia, Venet. 1641; Lugd. Bat. 1676, 6 vols. fol.

3 Petrus Gassendus; born at Chartansier in Provence, 1592; died at Paris 1655.

4 SAM. SORBERII Diss. de Vita et Moribus Petri Gassendi, prefixed to his Syntagma Philos. Epicuri.

+ BERNIER, Abrégé de la Philosophie de Gassendi, Paris, 1678, 8vo. Lugd. Bat. 1684, 12mo.

BUGEREL, Vie de P. Gassendi, Paris, 1737, 12mo. See also Lettre Critique et Historique à l'auteur de la Vie de P. Gassendi, ibid. 1737, 12mo.

PETRI GASSENDI Opera Omnia, Lugd. 1658, 6 vols. fol., et Flor. 1727.

5 Exercitationes Paradoxicæ adv. Aristoteleos, libo. I, Gratianopl. 1624, 8vo.; libb. II, Hag. Com. 1659, 4to.; (and the Answer of ENGELCKE); Censor Censura dignus; Philosophus Defensus, Rostoch. 1697. With Disput. adv. Gassendi, lib. I, Exercitationum V, ibid. 1699. 6 Examen Philosophiæ ROB. FLUDDI.

7 Dubitationes et Instantiæ adv. Cartesium.

8 Syntagma Philosophiæ Epicuri cum refutationibus Dogmatum quæ contra Fidem Christianam ab eo asserta sunt; præfigitur SORBERII Dissert. de Vita et Moribus P. Gassendi, Hag. Com. 1655-59, 4to.; Lond. 1668, 12mo. Amst. 1684, 4to.

of Theology and the doctrine of Final Causes. He endeavoured to erect upon Epicurism a philosophical system of his own. Em. Maignan (or Maignanus), who attempted to revive the dreams of Empedocles, excited less attention.

IV. Law of Nations of Grotius.

324. But philosophy now began to extend her researches from External Nature to the questions of Civil Right. Hugo Grotius (properly Hugo de Groot,) a distinguished Philologist, Theologist, Jurist, and Statesman, of great learning, and a clear and sound judgment, opened the way to a new study, that of International Law, by his celebrated work on the Rights of Peace and of War, the first example of a philosophical statement of National Law. Some learned men had indeed prepared the way by similar labours, among others, J. Oudendorp, Nicolas Hemming, Bened. Winkler, and Alb. Gentilis." The humane and exalted mind of Grotius was led to this undertaking by the Christian wish to diminish, if possible, the frequency and horrors of war. He took as the foundation of his argument the elements of Natural Right, and applied him immense erudition to show the universal assent paid by all nations to the notions of Right and Justice. His mode of proof was obviously a

1 Syntagma Philosophicum, Oper vol. I.

2 Born 1601; died 1671.

MAIGNANI Cursus Philosophicus, Tolosa, 1652, 4 vols., and Lugd. 1673, fol. 3 Born at Delft 1583; died at Rostock 1645. 3 Vita Hugonis Grotii, Lugd. Bat. 1704, 4to. (P. AMBR. LEHMANN), Grotii Manes ab iniquis Obtrectionibus vindicati, Delft. 1721; Lips. 1732, 8vo. Life of Grotius, by GASP. BRAND and ad. V. CATTENBURG. Dordr. 1727--32, 2 vols. fol. (Dutch).

Vie de M. Hugo Grotius, par. M. de BURIGNY, Paris, 1752, 2 vols. 12mo.

+ Hugo Grotius, his Life, etc. by H. LUDEN, Berl. 1807, 8vo.

4 De Jure Belli et Pacis, Paris. 1625, 4to., cum Commentario W. VAN DER MUELEN et aliorum, Amstelod. 1696-1703, 3 vols. fol. Best edition, Lausanne, 1751, 4 vols. 4to. Grotius illustratus Op. H. et S. DE COCCEJI, Wratislv. 1745--52, 4 vols. fol.

5 Born 1506; died 1567.

6 Born at Laland 1513; died 1600.

7 Born 1551, at Castello di San Genesio, in the March of Ancona, died 1611.

De Jure Belli libri tres, Hanau. 1589, 8vo.; ibid. 1612.

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