species of Induction, which he may have borrowed from his contemporary, Lord Bacon. Grotius is sometimes carried away, by the abundance of his learning, from the course of his argument, but nevertheless distinguished himself above any of his predecessors by his superiority to prejudice and prescription. He considers our notion of Right to be the result of a moral faculty, and derives its first principles from the love of society (socialitas); hence the obligation of defending that society (societatis custodia); and distinguishes between natural Right and Law, (Dictamen recta rationis), and positive (Jus voluntarium), whether of Divine or Human original; although he described it as identical with a universal, Divine, and positive law. He draws a distinction also between perfect and imperfect Right; between legal and moral obligation (facultas, aptitudo moralis). Although Grotius did but lay open this rich mine of inquiry, we are indebted to him not only for having suggested the pursuit, but for having contributed towards it a valuable stock of materials. His work has formed an era in literature, and been the subject of numerous, and often contradictory, commentaries. Selden, by his Natural Law of the Hebrews, which was followed up by Zentgrave and Alberti,3 authors of the Natural Law of Christianity,-pursued a totally different system, and derived Right from the conditions of a state of Innocence.

V. Materialism of Hobbes.

Thomæ Hobbes, Angli Malmesburiensis Vita (Auct. J. AUBERY), Carolopoli, 1681, 12mo.

FR. CASP. HAGEMII Memoriæ Philosophorum, Oratorum, Baruthii. 1710, 8vo.

RETTWIG, Epistola de Veritate Philosophiæ Hobbesianæ, Brem. 1695, 8vo.

'Born at Salvington in Sussex, 1584; died 1654.

Jo. SELDENI De Jure Naturali et Gentium juxta Disciplinam Ebræorum libb. VII, Lond. 1640, fol. Arg. 1665, 4to.

2 Born at Strasbourg 1643; died 1707.

JOACH. ZENTGRAVII De Jure Naturali juxta Disciplinam Christianorum libb. VIII, Strasb. 1678, 4to.

3 VALENT. ALBERTI, Compendium Juris Nat. Orthodoxæ Theologiæ conformatum, Lips. 1676, 8vo.

325. The influence of Bacon's philosophy was, as might have been expected, especially felt in England. Thomas Hobbes, a friend of his, entered into some of his views, from which he deduced a system of Materialism. He was born in 1588, at Malmsbury. Like Bacon he had contracted from the study of the Classics a contempt for the philosophy of the Schools; and his travels and intimacy with his illustrious countryman, as well as with Gassendi and Galileo, had led him to think for himself. But the practical direction which he laboured to give to his speculations, had the effect of limiting them. When the civil wars broke out, he proclaimed himself by his writings a zealous advocate of unlimited monarchy, as the only security for public peace. He died 1679; having published several mathematical and philosophical Essays, which have drawn upon him the reproach of fondness for paradox, and the stigma of Atheism.

His works: Opera, Amstelod. 1668, 2 vols, 4to. Moral and Political Works, Lond. 1750, fol. Complete works, English and Latin, edited by SIR WM. MOLESWORTH, 16 vols. 8vo. 1839-45. Elementa Philosophica de Cive, Par. 1642, 4to.; Amstel. 1647, 12mo. Leviathan, sive de materia, forma et potestate Civitatis Ecclesiasticæ et Civilis (English, Lond. 1651, fol.), Lat. Amstel. 1668, 4to.; Appendix, Amstel. 1668, 4to. Human Nature, or the Fundamental Elements of Policy, Lond. 1650, 12mo. Elementorum Philosophiæ sectio prima de Corpore (English, Lond. 1656, 4to.), Lat. Amstel. 1668, 4to. De Corpore Politico, or the Elements of Law, Moral and Political, Lond. 1659, 12mo. Quæstiones de Libertate, Necessitate et Casu, contra Doctorem Bramhallum (English, Lond. 1656, 4to.) Hobbes's Tripos, in Three Discourses, Lond. 1684, 8vo. Behemoth, Philosophical Problems, etc. 1682.

326. Hobbes appears to have aimed, above all things, at freedom and a firm foundation in his speculations, and, rejecting everything hypothetical, (of all qualitatum occultarum) affected to confine himself to the comprehensible, or in other words, to the phenomena of Motion and Sensation. He defines philosophy to be the knowledge, through correct reasoning, of phenomena or appearances from the causes presented by them; or, vice versâ, the ascertaining of possible causes by means of known effects.1 Philosophy embraces as an object every body that admits the representation of production and presenting the phenomena of

1 De Corp. p. 2.

composition and decomposition. Taking the term Body in its widest extent, he divides its meaning into Natural and Political, and devotes to the consideration of the first his Philosophia Naturalis, comprehending the departments of Logic, Ontology, Metaphysics, Physics, etc.; and to that of the second his Philosophia Civilis, or Polity, comprehending Morals. All knowledge is derived from the senses: but our sensational representations are nothing more than appearances within us, the effect of external objects operating on the brain, or setting in motion the vital spirits. Thought is calculation (computatio), and implies addition and subtraction. Truth and Falsehood consist in the relations of the terms employed. We can become cognizant only of the Finite the Infinite cannot even be imagined, much less known; the term does not convey any accurate knowledge, but belongs to a Being whom we can know only by means of Faith. Consequently, religious doctrines do not come within the compass of philosophical discussion, but are determinable by the laws of Religion itself. All, therefore, that Hobbes has left free to the contemplation of philosophy is the knowledge of our natural bodies (somatology), of the mind (psychology), and polity. His whole theory has reference to the External and Objective, inasmuch as he derives all our emotions from the movements of the body, and describes the soul itself as something corporeal, though of extreme tenuity. Instead of a system of pure meta physics, he has thus presented us with a psychology, deficient, it is true, in general depth; but which with some narrow and limited doctrines, contains occasionally others more enlightened and correct.

327. His practical philosophy, however, attracted more attention than his speculative. In this, also, Hobbes pursued an independent course, and altogether departed from the line of the Schoolmen. His grand object was to ascer tain the most durable posture the Body Politic could assume, and to define Public Right. An ideal form of government and state of morals had been imagined by Plato in his Republic, by Sir Thomas More1 in his Utopia,

1 Born at London, 1420; beheaded 1535.
Basil, 1558; besides many other editions.

by Campanella in his Civitas Solis, and by Harrington in his Oceana.3* Hobbes, on the contrary, assumes the exist ence of a notion of Natural Right, which he deduces from the assumption of a state of nature empirically represented. Agreeably to the lowest law of nature, manaims at the injury of his neighbour. Yet every one grasps, by a natural instinct, at everything which can contribute to his own well-being, and shuns everything that can cause the contrary. Self-preservation is the highest object of his pursuit, just as death is of his avoidance. All that tends to this end, and to the removal of pain, is conformable to reason, and therefore lawful. Right is the liberty of employing our natural powers agreeably to reason. Man has therefore the right of self-preservation and self-defence; and consequently of using the means to this end: and he is himself the judge and arbiter of these means; hence also he has a Right to all things. But the consequence of these rights, in a state of nature, must be an universal war of all with all; who must be perpetually brought into opposition with one another, to the destruction of all repose and security, and even of the power of self-preservation. Selflove, therefore, (or Reason), or Natural Law, ordain peace, and produce a new state of things, under the form of a civil compact (status civilis), in which a portion of the individual liberty of each is resigned by him, and intrusted to one or more. With this epoch commences that of external, obligatory Right. Absolute power on the part of the government, and implicit submission on the part of the governed, are necessary to the well-being of a state; and the best of all forms of government is therefore the monarchical. The laws of a Christian state are not contrary to the laws of God.

1 See above, bibliography of § 317.

2 Born at Upton, 1677.

3 Lond. 1656. With his works, 1700 and 1737.

* All these writers belong to the brotherhood of Socialists.-ED. 4 In his treatise De Cive.

A somewhat analogous view of Ethics and Deontology has been advanced in modern times by Charles Fourier. His axiom was: "Les attractions sont proportionées aux destinées." Fourier differed widely however from Hobbes in the conclusion he draws from his axiom. With the former the full swing of liberty gives birth to harmony; with Hobbes, to discord.-ED.

Self-love is the fundamental law of Nature, and Utility its End: the law of Nature prescribing Peace, is also the law of Morals (lex moralis). Hobbes referred to the Bible for confirmation of his consequently deduced Theory of the State.

His success was not great, and the little which he had was principally among foreigners. Of the number of his impartial judges, was the Dutchman Lambert Velthuysen :1 and of his adversaries, Richard Cumberland2 and Robert Scharrock.

VI. Lord Herbert of Cherbury.

328. Edward Lord Herbert of Cherbury, who had especially in view the philosophy of religion, followed a course. exactly the reverse of that pursued by Hobbes. He defended the notion of innate cognitions, and derived our knowledge, not from the understanding nor the senses, but from a certain instinctive reason to which he made the former subordinate. Instead of tracing our acquaintance with religion (according to his ideas of it) to historical tradition, as Hobbes had done, he derived it from an original immediate knowledge afforded to all mankind. Agreeably to these views, he pursued his researches more in an idealistic Rational than in an Empirical direction, and he dived deeper, particularly with respect to the nature of Truth; on which subject he published a separate work. He described the soul not as a tabula rasa, but as a closed book, which opens only when Nature bids it. It contains in itself general truths (communes notitia); which are common to all men; and ought to remove doubts and differences in philosophy and theology. He maintained the existence of a Religion of Reason, and claimed the right to

1 LAMBERTI VELTHUYSEN de Principiis Justi et Decori, Dissertatio Epistolica, continens Apologiam pro tractatu clarissimi Hobbesii de Cive, Amstelod. 1651, 12mo.

2 To be mentioned afterwards.

3 De Officiis secundum Jus Naturale, Oxon. 1660, 8vo. 4 Born 1581; died 1648.

5 Naturalis instinctus.

6 Tractatus de Veritate prout distinguitur a Revelatione, a Verisimili, a Possibili, et a Falso, Lut. Paris. 1624 et 1633; Lond. 1645, 4to.; 1656, 12mo. (With the Essay De Causis Errorum). De Reli gione Gentilium, Errorumque apud eos Causis, Lond. 1645, 8vo. Part I, completed 1663, 4to., and 1670, 8vo.