employed themselves in fortifying the outworks of their master's system; while the latter directed their attacks rather against the consequences of his philosophy than its principles. The result was an animated conflict, which kept alive the interest of philosophical research, and insensibly introduced the habit of more profound inquiries respecting the fundamental properties of human knowledge.

The system of Leibnitz, though favourably received by many distinguished professors, failed at first to obtain great influence in Germany, from its want of a systematic form. Other obstacles impeded its progress in France and England.

Among his successors we must distinguish M. G. Hansch,1 and Christian Wolf, the most renowned advocate of this school, and the first who gave an extensive popularity to the system. He was succeeded by his pupils, Bilfinger and Baumgarten (§ 370).

Other Contemporary Philosophers.

362. About the same time two learned men of great merit attempted, with different views, a reformation in School-philosophy, still prevalent in Germany. The celebrated physicist and mathematician E. W. von Tschirnhausen, who had studied at Leyden, and who had early attached himself to the opinions of Descartes and Spinoza, endeavoured to systematise a theory of philosophical discovery and observation, on the principle of mathematics.

1 Born near Dantzic, 1683; died at Vienna, 1752.

M. GOTTL. HANSCH, Principia Philosophiæ. See § 356, bibliogr. Ars Inveniendi, sive Synopsis Regularum Præcipuarum Artis Inveniendi, etc., 1737 (no place mentioned). Selecta Moralia, Halæ, 1720, 4to.

2 Born at Kieslingswalde in Oberlausitz, 1651; died 1708.

CHR. WALTH. TSCHIRNHAUSEN, Medicina Mentis, sive Artis Inveniendi Præcepta Generalia, Amstelod. 1687; Lips. 1695-1705-1753, 4to.

A biography of the author was published separately at Görlitz, 1709, 8vo. See Fontenelle, Eloges, p. 166. For an opinion of his philosophical labours, see the Collection of Memoirs of G. G. FULLEBORN, Fasc. V, p. 32, where are to be found extracts from his Medicina Mentis.

Christian Thomasius laboured to render philosophy more popular in its character, and to disseminate a knowledge of it in his native language. In Ethics he at first attached himself to the principles of Puffendorf, whom he defended against his assailants; though subsequently he withdrew from him, not so much in respect of his principles as by the distinctions he made between the Præcepta Justi, Honesti, et Decori; and by limiting Natural Right to merely negative principles of external conduct. His views in these particulars procured him, in after-time, as much abuse from one set of philosophers as they obtained applause from another. They were maintained in a more exact and

1 Born at Le psic, 1655; died at Halle, 1728.

2 Consult the article on Christian Thomasius, in the Universal Biography of Schröckh.

Chr.Thomasius, his Life and Works, byH. LUDEN, Berlin, 1805, 8vo. G. G. FULLEBORN, On the Philosophy of Chr. Thomasius, in Fasc. IV of his Collection of Memoirs, etc.

CHR. THOMASII Introductio in Philosophiam Aulicam, seu primæ lineæ Libri de Prudentia Cogitandi atque Ratiocinandi, Lips. 1688, 8vo.; Hal. 1702. Introductio in Philosophiam Rationalem in qua omnibus Homnibus Via plana et facilis panditur, sive Syllogistica, Verum, Verisimile et Falsum discernendi, novasque veritates inveniendi, Lips. 1601, 8vo.

Introduction to the Art of Reasoning, Halle, 1691, 8vo., (and other editions). + Exercise of the Art of Reasoning, Halle, 1710, 8vo. Essay on the Existence and Nature of the Spirit, etc., Halle, 1699— 1709, 8vo.

CHR. THOMASII Dissert. de crimine Magiæ, Hal. 1701, 4to.

3 CHR. THOMASII Institutionum Jurisprudentiæ Divinæ libri III, in quibus Fundamenta Juris Nat. secundum hypotheses ill. Pufendorfii perspicue demonstrantur, etc. Francof. et Lips. 1688, 4to.; Hal. 1717, 4to. Halle, 1712, 4to. Fundamenta Juris Naturæ et Gentium, ex sensu communi deducta, Hal. 1705-1718, 4to; Halle, 1709. Introductio in Philosophiam Moralem cum Praxi, Hal. 1706.

The Art of Living conformably to Reason and Virtue, or, an Introduction to Morality, Halle, 1692-1710, 8vo. On the Cure of Unreasonable Desire, etc., Halle, 1696-1704, 8vo.

FR. SCHNEIDER, Philosophia Moralis secundum Principia Thomasiana, Hal. 1723.

4 They were especially attacked by G. E. SCHULZE, († On the Principles of Civil and Penal Right, Götting. 1813, preface, p. 1 and 17): as well as by the celebrated Jurist, HUGO, who calls this attempt to distinguish between Natural Right and Morality-a Moral System intended for the use of Cut-throats (eine TodtscMagsmoral).

methodical manner by Ephraim Gerard, and still more so by Jer. Gundling. The principle of morality which Thomasius assumed was Reasonable Love, differing from unreasonable Self-love; of which, after all, it was a modification. The fruit of this Reasonable Love or Desire, is Happiness or repose of mind, constituting the ultimate object and supreme good of man. His successors (Gerard and Gundling), defined still more broadly the limits between Natural Right and Morality, and treated the former as a system of perfect right and corresponding obligation, having in view a state of nature; at the same time frequently referring to the enactments of positive law, especially the Roman, to which a certain degree of authority was still allowed. Heineccius, The Cocceii, and Pütter, have treated Natural Law with these views; their ideas being more fully developed by Achenwall; who also turned his attention to National Law. Among the philosophers who adhered to Wolf, must be mentioned the Eclectic Buddæus.

IV. Wolf and his School; his adversaries, and other
Contemporary Philosophers.

Vita, Fata, et Scripta CHR. WOLFII, Lips. et Breslav. 1739, 8vo. +CHR. GOTTSCHED, Historical Eulogium of Christian Baron von Wolf, Halle, 1755, 4to.

Life of Wolf, in the Memoirs towards a Biography of Celebrated Men, by BUSCHING, vol. I, p. 3—138.

Ephr. Gerhard died 1718; he published his Delineatio Juris Naturalis sive de Principiis Justi libri III, quibus Fundamenta Generalia Doctrinæ de Decoro accesserunt, Jen. 1742, 8vo.

NIC. JER. GUNDLING, born at Nuremberg 1671; died at Halle 1729; he published Via ad Veritatem Moralem, Hal. 1714, 8vo.; Jus Naturæ et Gentium, etc. Hal. 1714, 8vo.

On the Rights of Nature and Nations, etc. Francf. and Leips., 1734, 4to. See his Article in the second vol. of SCHRÖCKн, † Biography of Celebrated Literary Characters, etc.

2 Born at Elbingen, 1686; died 1756.

GOTTFR. ACHENWALL, Jus Naturæ, Gött. 1750, seventh edition, cum Præfat. de SELCHOW, 1781, 2 vols. 8vo. Observationes Juris Nat. et Gent. Spec. I-IV, Götting. 1754, 4to. Prolegomena Juris Nat.

Gött. 1758, fifth edition, 1781.

3 J. F. Budde, born 1697; died 1729.

CHR. WOLFII Dissertat. inauguralis: Philosophia Practica Universalis Methodo Mathematica conscripta, Lips. 1701, 4to.

KLUGE, Christian von Wolf, der Philosoph: Ein biographisches Denkmal, 1831.

CHR. WOLF'S Vernünftige Gedanken von den Kräften des menschlichen Verstandes, Halle, 1710, 8vo. u. öfter. Auch lateinisch. Vernünftige Gedanken von Gott, der Welt und der Seele des Menschen, auch allen Dingen überhaupt, Frankf. u. Leipz. 1719, 8vo.; 6te Ausg. 1736. Anmerkungen dazu, Frankf. 1724, 1727, 1733, 8vo. Versuche zur Erkenntniss der Natur und Kunst. 3 vols. Halle, 1721-23, 8vo. Vernünftige Gedanken von den Wirkungen der Natur, Halle, 1723, 8vo. Von den Absichten der natürlichen Dinge, Frankf. 1724, 8vo. Von des Menschen Thun und Lassen, Halle, 1720. Von dem gesellschaftlichen Leben der Menschen und dem gemeinen Wesen, Halle, 1721, 8vo. Institutiones Juris Naturæ et Gentium, Hal. 1750, 8vo.; Deutsch. 1754, 8vo. Nachricht von seinen eignen Schriften, die er in Deutscher Sprache in verschiedenen Theilen der Weltweisheit herausgegeben, Frankf. 1726, 8vo. Gesammelte kleine philosophische Schriften, Halle, 1740, 4 Th. 8vo.

Latin Works: Luculenta Commentatio de Differentia nexus Rerum Sapientis et Fatalis Necessitatis, necnon Systematis H. P. et Hypothesium Spinoza, 1723. Oratio de Sinarum Philosophia, Hal. 1726, 4to. Philosophia Rationalis, sive Logica Methodo Scientifica pertractata, Francf. et Lips. 1728, 4to.; second edition, 1732. Philosophia prima, sive Ontologia, ibid. 1730. Cosmologia Generalis, ibid. 1731. Psychologia Empirica, ibid. 1732. Psychologia Rationalis, Francf. et Lips. 1734. Theologia Naturalis, 1736, 1737, 2 vols. 4to. Philosophia Practica Universalis, ibid. 1738, 1739, 2 vols. 4to. Jus Naturæ, 1740, 8 vols. 4to. Philosophia Moralis, sive Ethica, Hal. 1750, 4 vols. 4to. Philosophia Civilis, sive Politica, fortgesetzt von MICH. CHR. HANOVIUS, Hal. 1746, 4 vols. 4to. Jus Gentium, Hal. 1750, 4to.

+ C. GUNTHER LUDOVICI, Plan of a History of the Wolfian Philosophy, second edition, Lips. 1737, 3 parts, 8vo. + Fresh Developments of the Leibnitzo-Wolfian Philosophy, Leips. 1730, 8vo. + Collection, etc. of all the Controversial Works published on the subject of the Wolfian Philosophy, Leips. 1737, two parts, 8vo.

G. VOLKMAR HARTMANN, Introduction to the History of the Leibnitzo-Wolfian Philosophy, and the Controversy excited on the subject, by Professor LANGE, Francf. and Lips. 1737, 8vo.

A. MEISSNER, Philosophical Lexicon adapted to the System of Chr. Wolf, and collected from his German Writings, Bayreuth and Hof, 1737, 8vo.

363. Christian Wolf was born at Breslau, in 1679, and was formed to become one of the most profound philosophers of the Dogmatic School by the study of the Mathematics, of the Cartesian philosophy, and of the Medicina

Mentis of Tschirnhausen. He was by nature possessed of less invention than powers of analysis, and talents for systemization; with considerable powers of popular expression. These advantages he employed in the illustration and defence of the Leibnitzian system, with singular success. By his elementary works, in German, he completed the downfall of the Scholastic philosophy in the universities of Germany; to which Thomasius also contributed. He materially improved the habits of thought of his countrymen, by promoting their progress in science, and the cultivation of order, method, and systematic arrangement. In 1707 he became professor of Mathematics at Halle, and after a long controversy with his colleagues (among others with J. J. Lange (§ 366), who accused him of Atheism), he was driven from his chair (1723), and retired to Marburg, where he taught as professor of Moral Philosophy. He was honourably recalled to Halle (1740), by Frederick II.; and died there April 9th, 1754; having outlived his reputation.

364. Wolf was the first philosopher who sketched out a complete Encyclopedia of the philosophical sciences, and, in a great measure, filled up his outline. He divides speculative philosophy into Logic and Metaphysics; of which Metaphysics comprehends Ontology, Rational Psychology (to be distinguished from Empirical), Cosmology and Theology. Practical philosophy he subdivides into Universal practical Philosophy, Ethics, Natural Rights and Law, and Politics. These subdivisions of Moral Philosophy, with the addition of Esthetics, or, the Theory of Taste, are at the present day generally adopted. As for the matter of his Philosophy, he found it for the most part supplied by others. He adopted the views of Leibnitz, with the exception of the perspective faculties of the Monades, which he absolutely rejected, and of the Pre-established Harmony, which he confined to the relation of the body and the soul. He may be said to have given a new edition of the Leibnitzian system, under the form of a dogmatical Dualism;1 and filled up some of the lacunæ it contained, either by the addition of new matter of his own, or a skilful development of his master's views. His chief merit consists in the unity of plan

A Dualism, it will be remembered, implies the recognition of two elementary principles.-ED.