capacity of Feeling and Impulsion. He denied the doctrine of Innate Ideas; deduced all representations from Sensation, and was consequently led to maintain that the soul can effect nothing but through the agency of the body; which is the source of all the modifications of which the other is susceptible. In this manner he approached Materialism, and admitted the existence of an affinity between the soul of men and of other animals. Other writers followed up the consequences deducible from the Empirical system with greater consistency and boldness; founding a decided system of Atheism, Materialism, and Absolute Determinism in all questions affecting the materiality and mortality of the Soul, and Morals. Of this number was La Mettrie,' a man of reprobate character, who endeavoured to account for all the operations of the mind on principles merely mechanical. Helvetius in like manner derived all its phenomena from sensational perception, and pronounced the notion of infinitude to be simply negative. To these must be added the authors of the famous Système de la

1 JUL. OFFROY DE LA METTRIE, born at St. Malo, 1709; died at Berlin, 1751. Œuvres Philosophiques de M. de la Mettrie, Lond. (Berl.), 1751, 2 vols. 8vo.; Amst. 1753-64, 2 vols. 8vo. Histoire Naturelle de l'âme, La Haye, (Paris), 8vo. ; [this work, by order of the Parliament, was burnt by the hands of the executioner]. Traité de la vie heureuse de Sénèque, Potsdam, 1748. L'Ecole de la Volupté (id. sous le titre de l'Art de Jouir), 1750. L'Homme Machine, Leyden, 1748, 12mo. L'Homme Plante, Potsdam, 1748, 8vo.

In answer to these works were published. L'Homme plus que Machine, par ELIE LUZAC, Lond. (Leid.), 1748, second edition, Gotting. 1755, 12mo. De Machina et Anima Humana prorsus a se invicem distinctis Commentatio, auct. BALTH. LUD. TRALLES, Bresl. 1749, 8vo, GODOFRID. PLOUCQUET, Dissert. de Materialismo, Tubing. 1750, cum Supplemento et Confutatione libelli: L'Homme Machine, ibid. 1751, 4to. 2 CLAUDE ADRIAN HELVETIUS, born at Paris, 1715; died 1771. De l'Esprit, Paris, 1758, 4to.; 2 vols. 8vo. De l'Homme, de ses Facultés et de son Education, Lond. (Amsterd.), 1772, 2 vols. 8vo. Les Progrès de la Raison dans la Recherche du Vrai, Lond. 1775, 8vo. Euvres complètes, Amsterd. 1776, 5 vols. 12mo.; Deux-Ponts, 1784, 7 vols. 8vo.; Paris, 1794, 5 vols. 8vo.; 1796, 10 vols. 12mo.

Eloge de M. Helvétius, (Genève), 1774, 8vo. Essai sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de M. Helvétius (par Duclos?), en avant de son Poème didactique, intitulé: Le Bonheur, Lond. (Amsterd.), 1773, 8vo.; and in his Œuvres complètes.

Nature, La Grange, or the Baron D'Holbach,' and Robinet. We must attribute principally to the influence of the French Encyclopedists the popularity which was enjoyed by a species of philosophizing which consisted in explaining away all that is incomprehensible by unfounded materialistic hypotheses, as well as by arguments from analogy pushed to an extravagant length. To this must be added, the pretension of making science of every kind popular and ccessible to all; and the habit of ridiculing as pedantic all serious and profound philosophical inquiries.

379. The men who at this period were dignified in France with the title of philosophers, through their shallowness and frivolity laid the foundation of that untenable enlightenment which confounds rational man with Nature, and deifies the material world; pronouncing the belief in a God to be superfluous or problematical, and rejecting all positive or revealed religion as the device of priestcraft. The universal corruption of the aristocracy, and the puerility of a ceremonial form of worship, procured for such opinions a ready acceptance. With views like these, the Encyclopedists

1 PAUL H. D. BARON VON HOLBACH, died 1789.

Système de la Nature, ou des Lois du Monde Physique et du Monde Moral, par feu M. MIRABAUD, [LA GRANGE? LE BARON D'HOLBACH ?] Lond. 1770, 2 vols. 8vo.

In reply see: BERGIER, Examen du Matérialisme, ou Réfutation du Système de la Nature, Paris, 1771, 2 vols. 8vo. DE CASTILLON, Observations sur le Livre intitulé; Système de la Nature, Berl. 1771, 8vo. Réflexions Philosophiques sur le Syst. de la Nat., par M. HOLLAND (GEORG. JONATH.) Paris, 1722, 2 vols. 8vo.; Neufchâtel, 1773. [VOLTAIRE], Réponse au Système de la Nature, Genève, 1772; et Encyclopédie, artic. "Dieu." Le Vrai Sens du Système de la Nature (par HELVETIUS), ouvrage posthume; (this work is made up of extracts). F. X. V. MANGOLD, A Calm Refutation of Materialism, in answer to the author of the System of Nature, Augsb. 1803, 8vo.

2 Jean Baptiste Robinet; born at Rennes, 1723.

ROBINET, Considérations Philos. de la Gradation Naturelle des formes de l'être, ou les Essais de la Nature, qui apprend à faire l'Homme, Amstd. 1767, 2 vols. 8vo. Parallèle de la Condition et des Facultés de l'Homme avec celles des autres Animaux, trad. de l'Angl. Bouillon, 1769, 12mo. See Bibliog. § 360.

3 On French Empiricism, consult W. R. BODMER, Le Vulgaire et les Métaphysiciens, ou Doutes et Vues critiques sur l'Ecole Empirique, Paris, 1802, 8vo.

See the work of MM. BARANTE and JAY, On the French Literature of the XVIII Century.

emulated Voltaire and Helvetius in this work, particularly Diderot' and D'Alembert." Others (like Rousseau), whose views were not altogether so objectionable, did more harm than good by a mass of well-meant but paradoxical declamations. In practical philosophy, the prevailing Empiricism favoured the opinion, that the little Morality they chose to require ought to be founded on empirical Psychology. From Self-love they deduced a system of Self-expediency, at variance with the essential characteristics of morality. In this manner Helvetius attempted to deduce all meritorious actions from interested motives, and allowed them to be meritorious only so far as they contributed to the well-being of some particular society of men. Others inconsistently attempted to ally the maxims of a better system of morality to exclusive Self-love; for instance, Mably and Rousseau, who had the talent for declaiming well about virtues, and

1 DENIS DIDEROT, born at Langres, 1713; died 1784.

Encyclopédie, ou Dictionnaire Raisonné des Sciences, des Arts, et des Métiers, par une Société de Gens de Lettres; mis en ordre et publié par M. DIDEROT. Paris, 1751-1763, 27 tom. folio pour le texte, 6 vols. de planches. Séconde édition, 1783-1800, 63 livraisons. 4to.

Vues Philosophiques, ou Protestations et Déclarations sur les Principaux Objets des Connaissance de l'Homme; nouv. éd. Berlin, 1755, 12mo. (par PREMONTVAL.)

DIDEROT, Pensées Philosophiques. La Haye, 1746, 12mo. (a work directed against Christianity, and burned by the hands of the executioner). Lettre sur les Aveugles, à l'usage de ceux qui voient, Paris, 1749. Pensées sur l'Interprétation de la Nature, Paris, 1754, et 1759, 12mo. Euvres Philosophiques, 6 vols. Amsterd. 1772. Euvres

complètes, Lond. 1773, 5 vols.

See the Mémoires pour servir à l'Histoire de la Vie et des Ouvrages de feu M. DIDEROT, by his daughter, MAD. DE VAUDEUIL, in the periodical of SCHELLING, entitled: Zeitschrift für Deutsche, Fasc. I, 1813. 2 JEAN LE ROND D'ALEMBERT, born at Paris, 1717; died 1783. Mélanges de Littérature, d'Histoire, et de Philosophie, de Mons. D'ALEMBERT, Paris, 1752, 5 vols. 12mo.; 1770, 5 vols. 8vo. CONDORCET, Eloge de M. d'Alembert, 1783.

3 In his work De l'Esprit, mentioned above. Among other replies to this work see: CHR. WILH. FRANCH. WALCH, De Consensu Virtutis Moralis et Politica contra Helvetium, Gotting. 1759.

4 Gabriel Bonnot de Mably, born at Grenoble, 1709; died 1785.

5 Born at Geneva, 1712; died 1778.

J. J. ROUSSEAU, Discours sur l'Origine et les Fondemens de l'Inégalité parmi les Hommes, Amsterd. 1775, 8vo. Lettres Ecrites de la Montagne, Amsterd. 1764, part II, 8vo. Du Contrat Social, ou Principes du Droit Politique, Amsterd. 1762, 12mo. Emile, ou de

who, with Robinet,' admitted the existence of a moral sense. The daring and short-sighted speculations of Rousseau. respecting Nature, Education, and Polity are sufficiently known, as well as the pernicious results to which they conducted. To this second description of French moralists Diderot also belongs.

It may be remarked that after the publication of Montesquieu's splendid work on Law, a great degree of attention was excited in France by the subject of Legislation, which was treated by their writers with unrivalled versatility, but also with extravagant tendencies. Abundance of theories on this subject, as well as on the Laws of Government and Nations, appeared, professing to discuss those points with a view to the principles of Philosophy.3

III. German Electics.

380. The following authors belonging to the school of Wolf, opposed themselves in part to the French philosophy. Herm. Sam. Reimarus,* a Naturalist and Theologian, who l'Education, Amsterd. 1762, 8vo. Euvres complètes, Genève, 1782, 17 vols.

1 In the work mentioned above, § 360. See also: Vue Philosophique de la Gradation Naturelle des formes d'être, ou les Essais de la Nature qui apprend à faire un Homme, Amsterd. 1767, 2 vols. 8vo. 2 Principes de la Philosophie Morale, ou Essai sur le Mérite et la Vertu, 1745. See § 379 (note).

3 We may particularise GASP. DE REAL, born at Sisteron, 1682; died 1752. Traité complet de la Science du Gouvernement, Paris, 176264, 8 vols. 4to. MABLY, De la Législation, ou Principes des Lois, Amsterd. 1776, 2 vols. 8vo. Doutes proposés aux Economistes sur l'Ordre Naturel et Essentiel des Sociétés, Paris, 1766, 12mo. Euvres, Paris, 1793, 12 vols. 8vo.; and also: l'Ecole des Physiocrates, ou Economistes. QUESNAY, born 1697; died 1774. Ordre Naturel et Essentiel des Sociétés Politiques; MIRABEAU the father, CONDORCET, MIRABEAU the elder, and EMM. SIEYES.

BURLAMAQUI (JEAN-JACQ., born 1694; died 1748), Principes du Droit Naturel. EMMERIC DE VATTEL, born 1714; died 1767. Droit des Gens (after WOLF). Lond. 1757, 2 vols. 4to.

4 Born at Hamburgh, 1694; died a professor at the Gymnasium, 1765.

HERM. SAM. REIMARUS, Theory of Reason, or the Method of employing Reason aright in the investigation of Truth, Hamburgh and Kiel, 1756, fifth edition, 1790, 8vo. The Principal Truths of Natural Religion, Hamburgh, 1754. The fifth edition contains also

united perspicuity to depth in his works on Logic, Natural Theology (in which he developed and extended the physicotheological proof), and the instinct of brutes; Gottfried Ploucquet, an acute thinker, who simplified Logic, discovered a logical calculus, and laboured to illustrate the principal points of the doctrine of Monadologia. J. H. Lambert, a distinguished Mathematician, Natural and Mental philosopher, and a friend of Kant, who had attained the conviction that Wolf's method in Mathematics required essential alterations. He applied the principles of his favourite science to the more exact demonstration of metaphysical problems.

the Dissertation of J. A. REIMARUS, on the Existence of God and the Human Soul, 1781, 8vo.; sixth edition, 1791. Considerations on the Instinct of Brutes, 1762, 8vo. fifth edition, with the notes of J. A. REIMARUS, 1798.

Born 1716; became professor at Tübingen; died 1790.

G. PLOUCQUET (see preceding sect. and § 358). Methodus tractandi Infinita in metaphysicis, Tübing. 1748, 4to. Methodus tam demonstrandi directe omnes Syllogismorum Species quam vitia formæ detegendi ope unius regulæ, Tübing. 1763, 8vo. Principia de Substantiis et Phænomenis; accedit Methodus calculandi in Logicis ab ipso inventa, cui præmittitur Comment. de Arte Characteristica Universali, Francof. et Lips. 1753, 8vo.; second edition, 1764, 8vo. Fundamenta Philosophiæ Speculativæ, Tübing. 1759, 8vo.; ibid. 1782, 8vo. Institutiones Philosophiæ Theoreticæ, ibid. 1772. Dernière édit., intit. : Expositiones Philos. Theor., Stuttg. 1782, 8vo. Elementa Philos. Contemplativæ, sive de Scientia Ratiocinandi, Notionibus disciplinarum Fundamentalibus, etc. Stuttg. 1778, 8vo. Solutio Problematis Lugdunensis qua ex una hac Propositione concessa: Existit aliquid existentia entis realissimi cum suis attributis eruitur, Tübing. 1758, 4to. Commentationes, Philos. Selectiones, etc. recognitæ, Ultraj. ad Rhenum, 1781, 4to. Varia Questiones Metaphysicæ cum subjunctis responsi onibus, Tübing. 1782, 4to.

+ Collection of writings referring to the Logical Calculus of Professor Ploucquet, with fresh additions, published by A. F. Böck, Francf. and Leips. 1766. Republished since.

2 Born at Mühlhausen, in Sundgau; died at Berlin, 1777. J. H. LAMBERT, New Organon, or Thoughts on the Right Method of determining the Characters of Truth, etc. Leips. 1764, 2 vols. 8vo.

Treatises on Logic and Moral Philosophy (edited by J. BERNOUILLI), vol. I, Dessau, 1782, 8vo. + Introduction to the Architectonic Science, etc. Riga, 1771, 2 vols. 8vo. Cosmological Letters on the Formation of the World, etc. Augsb. 1771, Svo. Correspondence of Kant aud LAMBERT, in Kant's Miscell. Works.