Mesmerism, like all other valuable new discoveries, after meeting with determined hostility from conservative minds in general and the orthodox part of the faculty in particular, have now been established on a foundation that cannot be shaken, and throw a new and important light on psychology and physiology.

The mantle of Mesmer descended on the shoulders of the Marquis of Puysegur, a French nobleman of the old régime, who was a principal means in propagating and advancing the interests of the science. He was supported and succeeded by Count Deleuze, a man of philosophical mind and benevolent heart, and by Barons Dupotet and Massias, a psychologist of some merit; as also by Drs. Bertrand, Georget, and Rostan. In Germany it has found numerous and eminent adherents, especially Dr. Ennemoser and Professors Eschenmayer and Kieser; and in England it has found able champions in Dr. Elliotson, Mr. Townsend, Dr. Gregory, and Mr. Colquhoun.

The science is at present too much in embryo for us to compass its scope, breadth, or depth; but many of its discoveries appear destined to throw much light on Psychology, Physiology, and ultimately on Ontology, and Theology. The phenomena of ecstacy, clairvoyance, prevision, thoughtreading, mental travelling, &c., which it has elicited, will probably give us a much greater insight into the subjects of Life, Death, Sleep, Spirit, and Matter.

Mesmeric science, like most others, has encountered violent opposition from sceptics and bigots, but is now satisfactorily identified with ancient Magic. Modern discovery has traced it in all climates and ages; and to it must probably be referred the Temple-sleep of the Egyptians, the Oracles and Divination of the Greeks, the Roman Sybils, the Brahminical Jogis, the Shamanism of the Mongolian races, and the Sorcery of the Laplanders, &c. It should also in justice be observed, that Mesmer was undoubtedly anticipated in his discovery of Animal Magnetism, as a science, by numerous eminent men, some of whom have been already enumerated. Among the ancient writers who have treated of the subject we must particularly notice Hippocrates,1 Plutarch, Plotinus, Porphyry, and Iamblichus. 1 Hippocrates, De Insomniis. Plutarch, De Iside et Osiride.

Since the revival of letters it has been investigated and explained by Pomponatius, Ficinus, Paracelsus, Baptist van Helmont, Maxwell, and others.

Besides these authors, Gassner," a German Roman Catholic priest, created a great sensation towards the beginning of the last century, by his very numerous and almost miraculous cures.

It seems, however, to be established that Mesmer did not borrow his discovery from his predecessors; and that he was the first who gave it an extensive publicity.

Our space will not suffer us to enter more fully into this interesting field of inquiry; but it may be advisable, before taking leave of the subject, to add, that it comes to us recommended by the adhesion of some of the first scientific men of the day. Among these we may enumerate, M. Agassiz, Baron Humboldt, Baron Reichenbach, Sir David Brewster, Professor Olbers the astronomer, Cloquet the French anatomist, Dr. Mayo, Dr. Elliotson, Dr. Gregory, Dugald Stewart of Edinburgh, &c.

Retrospective.

385. A review of the progress of philosophy during the period we have been considering will convince us that it had gained more in the apparent extent than the real value of its dominion. It is true that the different branches of philosophical science had acquired a rich mine of fresh materials, and two new studies, those of the theory of Taste and Pomponatius, De Incantationibus.

2 Paracelsus says, "I maintain, from what I have experienced, that such a deep secret lies hid in Magnetism as renders it impossible to make any great progress in the knowledge and cure of diseases without an acquaintance with its principles." Opera omnia, Gen. 1658, vol. I, p. 634.

3 For Van Helmont's views on the subject, see COLQUHOUN'S Isis Revelata; two Dissertations by DELEUZE in the Bibliothèque du Magnetisme Animal, tom. I, p. 45, and tom. II, p. 198, Paris, 1817. Besides, Van Helmont's own works (see § 329).

4 DR. WILLIAM MAXWELL, De Medicina Magnetica, Franc. 1679. 5 Born at Pludentz, in Swabia, in 1727.

See an interesting account of Gassner by Professor ESCHENMAYER, in the German Archives of Animal Magnetism, vol. 8.

7 Elements of the Philosophy of the Human Mind, vol. III, pp. 221-222

the Science of Animal Magnetism, had been laid open: the application of Philosophy to particular subjects, (for instance those of education and the political sciences), had been enlarged, and the influence of Philosophy had come to be recognized throughout the whole circle of human knowledge. On the other hand, little progress had been made in the improvement of a scientific Method. The questions respecting the true character of Philosophy, its Form, and its End, were scarcely stirred at all: the conflicting opinions with regard to the origin of knowledge had not been exhausted; and notwithstanding the recourse which had been had to the different methods of Observation, Reflection, and Demonstration, the fundamental conditions of their application and their limits had scarcely been discussed. Everywhere prevailed Incertitude, Doubt, and Dissension, respecting the most important questions; with a barren and superficial Dogmatism. The combatants on every side had laid aside their arms rather from indifference and disgust for intellectual speculation, than because any one predominant and satisfactory solution of the points at issue had established peace. All the philosophical sciences stood in need of more accurate limitations and more completely scientific forms, in consequence of the want of Principles; which the reformation Psychology had pretended to effect was inadequate to supply.1

386. In Practical philosophy also might be observed a conflict between the opposite tendencies of Empiricism and Rationalism; in which the former had obviously obtained. the advantage. The claims of the Intuitive Reason had not indeed been altogether rejected, but had seldom been fairly and freely discussed; the Intuition being perpetually confounded with Reflection, and treated as the handmaid of sensation; and not as an independent and practical faculty or power. Some inquirers (e. g. Geulinx and Rich. Price) had detected the two grand defects of most systems of Morality then received: 1st. That they either set out with self-love as their principle, or terminated in it as their end; producing nothing but a series of maxims more or less subservient to the mere attainment of Happiness by the exercise

› MEINERS, Revision de Philosophie. See p. 387, note 3.

of Prudence. 2ndly, That they did not recognise the Reason as the first legislating principle of free-agency.

No lasting reform was however brought about by these observations.

The Ethics of the day accordingly amounted to little more than a selection of what appeared to be the best and most rational views, an an Eclectic plan, and with views altogether subjective and personal; consisting in deductions from the principles of Self-love and Sympathy. Free-willthe first requisite of a sound system of Ethics-occasioned considerable perplexities to the supporters of such theories; since either they contemplated a free-will purely psychological, or laboured to solve the problem on metaphysical grounds, and thereby inclined to Determinism; or maintained a blind and unprincipled free-agency, against which theoretical reason revolted. In proportion as the disputants became more and more sensible of the difficulties belonging to this question, they were tempted to desert the prosecution of such inquiries altogether, and to adopt in their stead the easier task of rendering Philosophy popular-and superficial.

To this subject belong;

DE PREMONTVAL, Pensées sur la Liberté, Berl. 1754, 8vo. Le Diogène de D'Alembert, ou Diogène décent. Pensées libres sur l'Homme et sur les Principaux Objets des Connaissances de l'Homme. Nouv. éd. Berl. 1755, 12mo. Vues Philosophiques. Berl. 1757; 2 tom 8vo. Du Hazard sous l'Empire de la Providence, Berl. 1755, 8vo.

Versuche einer Anleitung zu einer Sittenlehre für alle Menschen (von SCHULZ), Berl. 1783-87, 4 Th. 8vo.

Jo. AUG. HEINR. ULRICH, Eleutheriologie, oder über Freiheit und Nothwendigkeit, Jen. 1788, 8vo.

SECOND PERIOD.

FROM KANT TO OUR OWN TIMES.

IMPROVEMENT EFFECTED IN PHILOSOPHY BY MEANS OF THE CRITICAL METHOD.

I. GERMAN PHILOSOPHY.

287. The history of German Philosophy from Kant to the present time has been admirably and copiously illustrated in various German and English works. The student may now obtain a clear and concise picture of this remarkable phase in the development of the human mind, from the pen of some of the most eminent thinkers and writers of the day. The historical and eclectic tendency of modern philosophy has naturally contributed to give greater importance to works treating of the history of philosophy, and the depth and acuteness of German metaphysics since the time of Kant, have naturally led men to explore and illustrate its variations with precision and minuteness.

The student is here presented with the most important works that have appeared on this portion of the history of philosophy.

ERDMANN, Die Entwickelung der deutschen Speculation seit Kant, 1 Th. 1848.

MICHELET, Geschichte der letzten Systeme der Philosophie in Deutschland, von Kant bis Hegel. 1 und 2 Bd. 1837, f. g.

BIEDERMANN, Die deutsche Philosophie von Kant bis auf unsere Zeit, 2 Bde, 1842. f. g.

ULRICI, Geschichte und Kritik der Principien der neuern Philosophie,

H. M. CHALIBEUS, Historische Entwickelung der spekulativen Philo.