Heydenreich, Buhle, Jakob, Maas, Hoffbauer, Schmalz, Fries, Feuerbach, Sol. Zacharie, Pölitz, Gros, etc. The science of Religion, considered as a part of Practical philosophy,' was ably treated by Heydenreich, Schmid, Jakob, Tieftrunk, Krug, etc. The theory of the Fine Arts (or Esthetics) was discussed by Heydenreich, Heusinger, and Delbrück, and the poet Schiller (in his prose writings), whose free spirit soon shook off the shackles of the School-philosophy.

philosoph. Privatrechts, Leipz. 1804, 8vo. Anfangsgr. des philosoph. Criminalrechts, ebend. 1805, 8vo. Vierzig Bücher vom Staate, 2 Bd. Stuttg. und Tub. 1820, 8vo. K. H. L. PÖLITZ, Die Staatswissenschaften im Lichte unserer Zeit, 4 Bd. Leipz. 1823, u. f. C. H. GROS, Lehrbuch der Philos. Rechtswissenschaft, Tübing. 1802; 3te Aufl. 1815, 8vo. J. CHR. GOTTL. SCHAUMANN, Wissenschaftl. Naturrecht, Halle, 1792, 8vo. Kritische Abhandlungen zur philos. Rechtslehre, Halle, 1795, 8vo. Versuch eines neuen Systems des Natürl. Rechts, ebend. 1796, 8vo. G. HENRICI, Ideen zu einer wissenschaftlicher Begründung der Rechtslehre, oder über den Begriff und die letzten Gründe des Rechts, etc. Hannov. 1809-10, 2 Th. 8vo.; 2te verm. Aufl. 1822, 8vo. J. A. BRUCKNER, Essai sur la Nature et l'Origine des Droits, Lips. 1810, 8vo.

1 HEYDENREICH, Betrachtungen über die Philosophie der Natürl. Religion, Leipz. 1790-91, 2 Bd. 8vo. Grundsätze der moral. Gotteslehre, Leipz. 1793, 8vo. Briefe über den Atheismus, ebend. 1797, 8vo. C. CHR. E. SCHMID'S Philosophische Dogmatik, Jena, 1796, 8vo. JAKOB'S Allgemeine Religion, 1797, 8vo. s. oben. TIEFTRUNK'S Versuch einer neuen Theorie der Religionsphilosophie, Leipz. 1797, 8vo. HOFFBAUER'S Untersuchungen über die wichtigsten Gegenstände der natürl. Religion, Halle, 1795, 8vo. J. E. PARROW, Grundriss der Vernunftreligion, Berl. 1790, 8vo. GEO. CHR. MULLER, Entwurf einer philos. Religionslehre, 1 Th. Halle, 1797. 8vo. Many critiques on the Religious Philosophy of Kant appeared from the pens of RATZE, STORR, JACHMANN, G. E. SCHULZE, and SCHELLING.

2 HEYDENREICH's System der Esthetik, 1 Th. (unfinished) Leipz. 1790, 8vo. Esthet. Wörterbuch, 4 Th. Leipz. 1793, ff. J. H. GLIEB. HEUSINGER'S Handbuch der Esthetik, Gotha, 1797, 2 B. 8vo. L. BEN DAVID, Beitrag zur Kritik des Geschmacks, Wien, 1797. Versuch einer Geschmackslehre, Berl. 1799, 8vo. F. DELBRUCK, Das Schöne, Berl. 1800, 8vo. F. W. D. SNELL, Versuch einer Esthetik für Lieb haber, 2te Aufl. Giessen, 1828.

3 J. ITH, Anthropologie, 1794, 8vo. C. CHR. E. SCHMID, Empirische Psychologie, 1 Th. Jena, 1791; 2te Aufl. 1796, 8vo. Psychologische Magaz. seit 1796; Anthropolog. Journal, 1803. JAKOB'S Grundriss der Erfahrungsseelenlehre, Halle, 1791; 4te Aufl. 1810, 8vo. Grundriss des emp. Psych. Leipz. 1814; und, Eriäuterung der Grundrisses, ebend. HOFFBAUER'S Naturlehre der Seele, in Briefen, Halle, 1796, 8vo. Untersuchungen über die Krankheiten der Sccle, Halle, 1802

Psychology by Schmid, Jakob, Snell, etc. Education' by Heusinger, Miemeyer, Schwartz, etc.

All these authors (most of them professors in the German Universities) contributed in a greater or less degree to illustrate or extend the system of their master. The most remote branches of philosophy were influenced by the central action and impulse which had been communicated by Kant; and even his adversaries ended by doing him justice. It is true that in France and in England3 his system could

3 Th. 8vo. Psychologie in ihrer Hauptanwendung auf die Rechtspflege, Halle, 1808, 8vo. Der Grundriss vor. s. Logik, und besonders, Halle, 2te Aufl. 1810. KIESEWETTER, Kurzer Abriss der Erfahrungsseelenlehre, Berl. 1806, 8vo.; 2te Aufl. 1814. Fassl. Darstellung der Erfahrungsseelenlehre, Hamb. 1806, 8vo. F. W. D. SNELL, Empir. Psychol. Giessen, 1802; 2te Aufl. 1810. MAASS, S. oben. s. 29. Litt. Versuch über die Gefühle, bes. über den Affecten. 2 Th. Halle und Leipz. 1811-12, 8vo.

JOH. HEINR. GLIEB. HEUSINGER'S Versuch eines Lehrbuchs der Erziehungskunst, Leipz. 1795, 8vo. A. H. NIEMEYER'S Grundsätze der Erziehung, Halle, 1796, 8vo. ; 6te Aufl. 3 B. 1810, 8vo. Leitfaden der Pädagogik und Didaktik, Halle, 1803, 8vo. FRIEDR. HEINR. CAR. SCHWARZ, Lehrbuch des Pädagogik und Didaktik, Heidelb. 1807-8. Erziehungslehre, Leipz. 1802-4, 3 B. 8vo. J. LUD. EWALD, Vorlesungen über die Erziehungslehre, 3 Th. Mannh. 1808, 8vo.

* Philosophie de Kant, ou Principes Fondamentaux de la Philosophie Transcendentale, par CHARLES VILLIERS, Metz, 1801, 2 vols. 8vo. See the Critical Journal of SCHELLING and HEGEL, vol. 1, No. 3, p. 6, sqq.

See also several essays in the Spectateur du Nord, Hamb. 1798-9. Essai d'une Exposition succincte de la Critique de la Raison pure de M. Kant, par M. KINKER, traduit du Hollandois par J. LE FR. Amsterd. 1801, 8vo. De la Metaphysique de Kant, ou Observations sur un ouvrage intitulé, Essai d'une Exposition, etc., par le Citoyen DESTUTT-TRACY, in the Mémoires de l'Institut Nat. Scienc. Moral., tom. IV.

Philosophie Critique découverte par Kant fondée sur le dernier principe du Savoir, par J. HOEHNE, Paris, 1802, 8vo.

3 NITSCH, General and Introductory View of Kant's Principles concerning Man, the World, and the Deity, Lond. 1796, 8vo.

The Principles of Critical Philosophy, selected from the works of Emm. Kant, and expounded by JAMES SIG. BECK. Translated from the German, Lond. and Edinb. 1797, 8vo.

WILLICH'S Elements of the Critical Philosophy, Lond. 1798, 8vo. WIRGMAN (THOMAS), Principles of the Kantesian Philosophy, 8vo. Science of Philosophy (on kantian Principles), 4to.; and two Essays on Kant in the Encyclopædia Londinensis

COLERIDGE, Table Talk: The Friend; &c.

scarcely obtain a hearing, in spite of the zealous labours of some of its admirers; but in Holland' and the North of Europe it had greater success.

We may consider as unavoidable consequences of the popularity it acquired, the number of abuses to which it gave birth, such as an unmeaning use of formularies, a blind devotion to one single system, and a contempt for all experimental knowledge.

B. Philosophy subsequent to Kant.

397. The triumph of Critical philosophy was of short duration. It opposed too many factions, and counteracted too many views and pretensions, to obtain an easy victory. The various misapprehensions to which it gave birth, raised suspicions of the correctness of the principles it contained, as well as of the propriety of the method by which they were developed. Some asserted that the theory was suffi ciently refuted by Common Sense, because it amounted to nothing more than a system of mere Idealism, and destroyed the very reality of all external nature. Others went only half as far in their objections, alleging that Kant had thrust out real existence by one door, to let it in by another. His system was judged to be incomplete in this respect also, that by subdividing the different mental principles of Knowledge, it placed them side by side, as co-ordinate with one another, instead of making them subordinate to one supreme principle (§ 389). Many of its opponents objected to it, that instead of weakening the cause of Scepticism, it con

1 PAUL VAN HEMERT, Beginsels der Kantiansche Wysgeerte, Amstd. 1796, 8vo. Magazyn voor de Critische Wysbegeerte en de Geschiedenis van dezelve, Amsterd. 1798, 8vo. Epistolæ ad Dan. Wyttenbachium, Amsterd. 1809, 8vo. (DAN. WYTTENBACH, in answer to HEMERT) Piλoμabrías тà σπорácα-Miscellanea Doctrinæ, lib. I, II, Amsterá. 1809, 8vo.

J. KINKER, Essai d'une Introduction, etc. (see p. 416, note 2).

F. H. HEUMANN, Principes Moraux de la Philosophie Critique developpés et appliqués à une Legislation externe fondée sur la Justice, la Liberté, et l'Egalité naturelle, Amstd. 1799, 8vo.

VAN BOSCH, Ethica Philosophiæ Criticæ.

2 Such as the principles of Thought and Knowledge; a principle of Speculative Science, and a principle of Practical Reason.

tributed to fortify it; while some of its partisans brought discredit on their cause by misapplying its formularies, or by their extravagant expectations of its success.1 Besides, the views developed, particularly the distinction established between Knowledge and Science, were too new to be at once generally adopted or apprehended, and too repugnant to the natural tendency to speculation, for the understanding at once to submit to their discipline. The consequence was, that the Critical system itself gave occasion to a variety of attempts, partly to re-establish the old dogmatical theories -partly to exalt the new philosophy itself to the highest grade of Science, to constitute it a complete system of knowledge (of which Kant had only pointed out the method), supposing it to have attained to the region of the Absolute and Perfect, in which Being and Science become identical, and all the contradictions of the terms of Reflection disappear. A variety of fresh systems made their appearance, by which man hoped to attain to a knowledge of the Absolute; some by the way of contemplation-some by thought -some by science-others, again, by belief. It was natural that Scepticism also should revive in exact proportion as attempts at demonstrative science began to characterise the new philosophy.

The consequence was, that from this School itself proceeded fresh essays both of Dogmatism and Scepticism.

C. L. Reinhold.

REINHOLD, Karl Leonhard Reinhold's Leben und literarisches Werken, nebst Auswahl von Briefen desselben.3

An Account of his Doctrines, etc.; by his pupil, E. DUBOс, Hamb. 1828, 8vo.

398. The leader in these controversies was C. L. Reinhold, who was born at Vienna, 1758, and subsequently became a professor at Jena and Kiel; where he died, 1823.

Having by laborious study made himself thoroughly

1 For instance: A Preliminary Exposition of the Principles of a General System of Posts!!! Götting. 1801.

2 For instance: the Empiricism of SELLE (Berlin, 1788, 8vo.), the Rationalism of EBERHARDT, and the Eclecticism of FEDER.

3 Containing several letters of Kant and his contemporarics.

acquainted with the spirit of the Critical system, and cultivated his own talent for analysis, he convinced himself that he had discovered in them a principle of perpetual harmony among men of inquisitive minds, and a panacea for the evils of mortality. His hope being disappointed by the innumerable misapprehensions which prevailed with regard to it, he laboured to discover for it some internal evidence, in corroboration of the argumentative proof it possessed already. He believed himself to have detected such a principle by the observation, that although Kant had investigated fully the faculties for acquiring knowledge, he had not examined the phenomena and representations of Consciousness, which are the ultimate source of all knowledge, and necessarily modify and define it. He also complained that the Critical system was not sufficiently scientific; and, in particular, wanted a common principle influencing all its parts, and a theory founded on such a principle, which might supply the elements of Logic, Metaphysics, and the Criticism of Reason. To this end he proposed the principle of Consciousness. In Consciousness we may distinguish between two relative terms, the Object represented (or the material coming from without), and the Subject which represents. By investigating the notion of representation and its modifications of unity and multiplicity, Reinhold endeavoured to ascertain the fixed and peculiar properties of the faculties of cognition and representation, as well as the results of a critical examination of the rational faculties. This theory of the faculty of representation had the appearance of giving to Critical Philosophy

1 See the letters of Kant mentioned § 398, bibliogr.

It was styled the Theory of the Faculties of Mental Conception. Versuch einer neuen Theorie des menschl. Vorstellungsvermögens, Prag. u. Jena, 1789, 8vo. ; u. 1795. Ueber die bisherigen Schicksale der Kant'schen Philosophie, Jena, 1789, 8vo. Ueber das Fundament des philos. Wissens. Jena, 1791, 8vo. Beiträge zur Berichtigung bisheriger Missverständnisse der Philosophie, I u. II B. Jena, 1790, 1794, 8vo. Auswahl vermischter Schriften, 2 Thle. Jena, 1796, 8vo. Preisschrift über die Frage: welche Fortschritte hat die Metaphysik seit Leibnitz und Wolff gemacht (together with other prize compo sitions of SCHWAB and ABICHT), Berlin, 1796, 3vo. Verhandlungen über ein Einverständniss in den Grundsätzen der sittlichen Angelegenheil aus dem Gesichtspuncte des gemeinen und gesunden Verständes, I Bd. Lübeck, 1798, 8vo.