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period should be mentioned, Archytas of Tarentum,' a contemporary of Plato, and Philolaus of Croto, or Tarentum; who became celebrated for his system of astronomy, and composed the first treatise of his school which was committed to writing, entitled "The Bacchæ, or Inspired Women."

96. The doctrine of Pythagoras had great influence with the most eminent philosophers of Greece (and, in particular, with Plato) from the excitement, direction, and method it communicated to their speculations. Subsequently, however, it became the fashion to call Pythagorean all that Plato, Aristotle, and others after them, had added to the doctrines of Pythagoras; even opinions which they themselves had started; and to this medley of doctrines of various origin was superadded a mass of superstitions (§ 184).

III. Speculations of the Eleatic School.

Liber de Xenophane, Zenone, Gorgia, Aristoteli vulgo tributus, partim illustratus Commentario a GE. GUST. FULLEBORN, Hal. 1789, 4to. GE. LUD. SPALDINGII Vindicia Philosophorum Megaricorum; subjicitur Commentarius in priorem partem libelli de Xenophane, Zenone, et Gorgia, Hal. 1792, 8vo.

+ J. GOTTFR. WALTHER, The Tombs of the Eleatic Philosopher un closed, second edition, Magd. et Leips. 1724.

1 See C. G. BARDILI, Epochen, etc., supplement to the first part. The same, Disquisitio de Archyta Tarentino, Nov. Act. Soc. Lat. Jen. vol. I, p. 1. Tentamen de Archyta Tarentini vita atque operibus a Jos. Navarra conscriptum, Hafn. 1820, 4to. Collection of the pretended Fragments of Archytas, in the History of the Sciences, by MEINERS, vol. I, p. 598.

GRUPPE, Ueber die Fragmente des Archytas und anderen der ältern Pythagoräer, 1840.

2 The contemporary of Socrates.

3 Concerning this philosopher, see the work of AUG. BOECKн, mentioned § 92, note; and The Doctrine of the Pythagorean Philolaus, with the fragment of his work, by the same, Berl. 1812, 8vo.

On the Pythagorean Ladies, see IAMBLICHI Vit. Pyth. ed. KUSTER, p. 21. Theano is particularly mentioned as the wife or the daughter of Pythagoras. DIOG. LAERT. VIII, 42, sqq.; IAMBL. 1. c.; in the work of GALE, Opusc. Myth. p. 740, sqq.; in the Collect. of J. CHPH. WOLF, Fragmenta Mulierum Græcarum prosaica, p. 224, sqq., we find letters attributed to Theano and other women of this sect. See also FABRICIUS, Bibl. Gr.; WIELAND, On the Pythagorean Ladies, in his works, vol. XXIV; FRED. SCHLEGEL, Abhandlung über Diotima, fourth vol. of his works, Vienna, 1822, 8vo.

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JOH. GOTTL. BUHLE, Commentatio de Ortu et Progressu Pantheismi inde a Xenophane primo ejus auctore, usque ad Spinozam, Götting. 1790, 4to., et Commentt. Soc. Gött. vol. X, p. 157.

CHR. AUG. BRANDIS, Commentationum Eleaticarum, p. 1. Xenophanis, Parmenidis, et Melissi doctrina e propriis Philosophorum reliquiis repetita, Alton. 1813, 8vo.

97. The philosophers whom we have hitherto considered, started from experience; and, conformably with the testimony of the senses, assumed as a substratum the multiplicity of changeable things, of which they endeavoured to trace the origin and connection with the eternal. Now, however, a school arose at Elea, in Italy, that ventured to pronounce experience a mere appearance, because they found creation (das Werden) incomprehensible, and that endeavoured to determine the nature of things as the one sole substance, merely from notions of the understanding. According to this view, the one immoveable esse (seyn) is the only true being. This idealistic pantheism was developed by four remarkable thinkers who, as regards their personal history, are but too little known to us.

Xenophanes.

Fragments of the Poem of Xenophanes Tepi quoews, in the Collection of FULLEBORN, NO. VII, § 1; and in BRANDIS Comment. (above); and in Philosophorum Gr. vet. Operum Reliquiæ. (Xenoph. Parmen. Emped.) ed. KARSTEN, 3 vols. 8vo. Brux. 1830-38.

TOB. ROSCHMANNI Diss. Hist. Philos. (præs. FEUERLIN) de Xenophane, Altd. 1729, 4to.

DIET. TIEDEMANN, Xenophanis decreta, Nova Biblioth. Philolog. et Crit. vol. I, fasc. II.

+FULLEBORN, Xenophanes, Collection, fasc. I, § 3. See the works mentioned in the preceding §.

98. Xenophanes of Colophon was the contemporary of Pythagoras, and, about the year 536, established himself at Elea or Velia, in Magna Græcia. From the principle ex nihilo nihil fit, he concluded that nothing could pass from non-existence to existence. According to him, all things

1 Idealism expresses that system of philosophy which, though admitting differences on minor points, agrees in placing the Absolute in abstract ideas and thought, and in regarding the appearances of the world of sense as only relative. Idealistic Pantheism denotes that system of philosophy which professes to regard this world of ideas and thought as divine. A close approximation may be traced between the Pantheism of Xenophanes and that of Hegel.-ED.

that really exist are eternal and immutable. On this principle he looked upon all nature as subject to the same law of unity, ἕν τὸ ὂν καὶ πᾶν. God, as being the most perfect essence, τὸ πάντων ἄριστον καὶ κράτιστον, is eternally One; unalterable, and always consistent with himself; He is neither finite nor infinite, neither moveable nor immoveable; he cannot be represented under any human semblance; he is all hearing, all sight, and all thought, and his form is spherical. The same philosopher (on the principle of experience) proposed to explain the multifariousness of variable essences by assuming, as primitive elements, water and earth. He appears to have hesitated between the opposite systems of empirism and rationalism, and bewailed the incertitude which he regarded as the condition of humanity. Xenophanes was the first to set the example of a philosopher who divested the Deity of the unworthy images under which he had been represented. 3

Parmenides.

Fragments of his Poem Tepi púσews, collected by H. STEPHENS.

FULLEBORN, Fragments of Parmenides, collected and illustrated, Züllichau, 1795, 8vo. The same in his Collection, fasc. VI and VII. The same Fragments, published with those of Empedocles, by PEYRON; see § 108. (On Parmenides cf. Diog. Laert. IX, 21, sqq.) Parmenidis Carm. Reliquiæ, ed. KARSTEN, 8vo. Amst. 1835.

J. BRUCKER, Letter on the Atheism of Parmenides, translated from the Latin into French, in the Bibliothèque Germanique, tom. XXII, P. 90.

+ NIC. HIER. GUNDLING, Observations on the Philosophy of Parmenides, in the Gundlingiana, tom. XV, p. 371, sqq.

J. T. VAN DER KEMP, Parmenides, Edina, 1731, 8vo.

99. Parmenides of Elea, who travelled with Zeno to Athens about 460, enlarged upon the above system. He maintained that the Reason alone was capable of recognizing Truth; that the senses could afford only a deceptive appearance

1 Empirism, it is necessary to bear in mind, would derive all our knowledge ultimately from Experience, by the avenues of the senses; rationalism, on the contrary, from the Reason.

2 ARIST. de Xenoph. c. 3; Met. I, 3, 5. SEXTUS, Hyp. Pyrrh. I, 224, 8qq.; III, 228; Adv. Math. VII, 49, sqq. Aóкoç d'éπì nãoι TÉTUKTAI, 52, 110; VIII, 326; X, 313, sqq. DIOG. LAERT. IX, 19, sqq. STOB. Ecl. II, p. 14, sqq. ed. HEEREN.

3 CLEM. ALEX. ed. POTT, p. 714, sqq.

of it. From this principle he deduced a twofold system of true and of apparent knowledge; the one resulting from the reason, the other from the senses.1 His poem on Nature treated of both these systems; but the fragments of it which have come down to us, make us better acquainted with the former than the latter. In the former, Parmenides begins with the idea of pure existence, which he identifies with thought and cognition (never expressly making it the same with the Deity), and concludes that non-existence, τò μǹ öv, cannot be possible; that all things which exist are one and identical; and consequently that existence has no commencement, is invariable, indivisible, pervades all space, and is limited only by itself; and consequently that all movement or change exists only in appearance. But appearance itself depends upon an unavoidable Representation (doğa).* _To account for this appearance conveyed by the senses, Parmenides assumed the existence of two principles, that of heat or light (ethereal fire), and that of cold or darkness (the earth); the first pervading and active, the second dense and heavy; the first he defined to be positive, real, and the intellectual element (dnμovpyòs); the second the negative element (un ov); or as he preferred to style ita limitation of the former." From this twofold division he derived his doctrine of changes; which he applied even to the phenomena of the mind."

Melissus.

ARISTOTELIS liber de Xenophane, Zenone, Gorgia, c. I, 2; et SPALDING, Comment. ad h. lib. See Bibliogr. § 97; cf. DIOG. LAERT. lib. IX, § 24.

1 SEXTUS EMP. Adv. Mathem. VII, 111. ARIST. Metaph. I, 5. DIOG. LAERT. IX, 22.

2 See Frag. in FULLEBORN, V, 45, 46, 88-91, 93, sqq.

3 PARMENIDIS Fragmenta, in the Collection of FULLEBORN, V, 39, sqq. ARIST. Physic. I, 2; Metaph. III, 4; Lib. de Xenophane, 4. PLUTARCH. De Plac. Philos. I, 24. SEXT. EMPIR. Adv. Math. X, 46; Hyp. Pyrrh. III, 65. SIMPLIC. in Phys. Arist. p. 19 et 31. STOB. Ecl. I, p. 412, sqq.

4 SIMPLIC. Comment. in Arist. de Cœlo, p. 38, b.

5 CIC. Acad. Quæst. II, 37. PLUTARCH. De Plac. II, 7-26; III, 1, 15; IV, 5; V, 7. SEXT. EMPIRIC. IX, 7, sqq. STOв. Ecl. I, p. 500. 610. 516, et al.

100. Melissus of Samos, adopted (possibly from the teaching of the two last philosophers) the same system of idealism, but characterized by greater boldness in his way of stating it, and, in some respects, by profounder views. What really existed, he maintained, could not either be produced or perish; it exists without having either commencement or end; infinite (differing in this respect from Parmenides), and consequently, one; invariable, not composed of parts, and indivisible: which doctrine implies a denial of the existence of bodies, and of the dimensions of space. All that our senses present to us (that is to say, the greater part of things which exist), is nothing more than an appearance relative to our senses (Tò ev yuîv), and is altogether beyond the limits of real knowledge. As for the relation between real existence and the Deity, we are ignorant of the sentiments of Melissus on this head; for what is reported by Diog. Laert. IX, 24, can be considered as relating only to the popular notions.

Zeno.

See the works mentioned in § 97.

DIET. TIEDEMANN, Utrum Scepticus fuerit an Dogmaticus Zeno Eleates; Nova Bibliotheca Philol. et Crit. vol. I, fasc. 2; cf. † STÆUDLIN, Spirit of Scepticism, vol. I, 264.

3

101. Zeno of Elea, an ardent lover of liberty, travelled, with his friend and teacher Parmenides, to Athens, about the LXXX Olympiad, and appeared in the character of a defender of the idealism of the Eleatic school, which could not but seem to people at large, strange and absurd; endeavouring, with great acuteness, to prove that the system of empiric realism is still more absurd." 1st. Because, if we admit if there is a plurality of real essences, we must admit them to possess qualities which are mutually destructive of 1 He was distinguished as a statesman and naval commander, and flourished about 444 B.C.

2 ARIST. Phys. I, 2, 3, 4; III, 9; De Cœlo, III, 1; De Sophist. Elench. 28. SIMPLIC. in Physic. Arist. p. 8 et 9. 22. 24, 25; in Arist. de Cœlo, p. 28, a. CIC. Acad. Quæst. II, 37. SEXT. Emp. Pyrrh. Hyp. III, 65; Adv. Math. X, 46. STOв. Ecl. 1, p. 440. 3 PLUTARCH, Adv. Colot. ed. Reiske, vol. X, p. 630. DIOG. LAERT. IX, 25, sqq. VAL. MAX. III, 3.

4 460 B.C.

5 PLATO, Parmenides, p. 74, sqq.

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