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CHAPTER SECOND.

FROM SOCRATES TO THE END OF THE CONTEST BETWEEN THE PORCH AND THE ACADEMY (SECOND EPOCH OF GRECIAN PHILOSOPHY.)

111. The Sophists compelled their antagonists to examine narrowly human nature and themselves, in order to be able to discover some solid foundation on which philosophy might take its ground, and defend the principles of truth, religion, and morality. With this period began a better system of Greek philosophy, established by the solid good sense of Socrates. Philosophy was diverted into a new channel, and proceeded from the subject to the object, from man to external nature, instead of beginning at the other end of the chain. It became the habit to investigate no longer merely speculative opinions; but likewise, and in a still greater degree, practical ones also. Systematic methods of proof were now pursued, and the conclusions arrived at diligently compared. The want which all began to feel of positive and established principles, gave birth to different systems; at the same time that the scrupulosity with which all such systems were examined, kept alive the spirit of original inquiry.

112. This alteration was effected under the influence of some external changes of circumstances also. Athens had now become, by her constitution and her commerce, by the character of her inhabitants, the renown she had acquired in the Persian war, and other political events, the focus of Grecian arts and sciences. În consequence, she was the scene of the labours of their philosophers: schools were formed in which ideas might be communicated, the intellectual powers of those who frequented them developed by more frequent and more various contact of the opinions of others, and emulation continually excited towards continually higher objects. On the other hand these schools were liable to the defect of fostering, by their very facilities of acquiring knowledge, a certain intellectual indolence; increased by the easy repetition of the doctrines of their teachers, and aided by the methodical nature of the instruction itself. It was to the powerful influence of the character

and inquiries of Socrates, that the philosophy of the period owed the new impressions and bias which were given to it.

I. Socrates.

The principal authorities are:1 Xenophon (particularly the Memorabilia and Apology of Socrates), and Plato (Apology?) (Compare these two writers, in this respect). Secondary sources: Aristotle, Cicero, Plutarch, Sextus Empiricus, Diogenes Laertius (II, 18, sqq.), .Apuleius.

113. Socrates was born at Athens in 470 or 469, and was the son of a poor sculptor named Sophroniscus, and of Phænareta a midwife. He formed himself to a character completely opposed to the frivolity and sophistical habits of the refined and corrupted age to which he belonged, par

Works on the Life, Doctrine, and Character of Socrates.

FR. CHARPENTIER, La Vie de Socrate, 3ème édition. Amster. 1699. J. GILBERT COOPER, The Life of Socrates, collected from the Memorabilia of Xenophon and the Dialogues of Plato, Lond. 1749-50, and 1771. JAC. GUILL. MICH. WASSER, Diss. (Præs. G. CHR. KNORR) de Vitâ, Fatis atque Philos. Socratis, Etting. 1720, 4to.

+ W. FR. HELLER, Socrates, 2 parts, Francf. 1789-90, 8vo.

+ C. W. BRUMBEY, Socrates, after Diog. Laertius, Lemgo, 1800, 8vo. DAN. HEINSII Socrates, seu Doctrinâ et Moribus Socratis Oratio; in his Orationes, Lugd. Bat. 1627, 8vo.

DAN. BOETHIUS, De Philosophiâ Socratis, p. I, Ups. 1788, 4to.

GARNIER, The Character and Philosophy of Socrates; in the Mém. de l'Acad. des Inscript. tom. XXXII.

G. WIGGERS, Socrates as a Man, a Citizen, and Philosopher, Rost. 1807; second edition, Neustrel. 1811, 8vo.

+ FERD. DELBRUCK, Reflections and Inquiry concerning Socrates, Cologne, 1816, 8vo.

J. ANDR. CAMMII Commentatio (Præs. Jo. SCHWEIGHÆUSER): Mores Socratis ex Xenophontis Memorabilibus delineati, Argent. 1785, 4to. J. HACKER, Diss. (Præs. FR. VOLKM. REINHARD), Imago Vita Morumque Socratis è Scriptoribus vetustis, Viteb. 1787, 8vo.

J. LUSAC, Oratio de Socrate cive, Lugd. Bat. 1796, 4to.

FR. MENTZII Socrates nec officiosus maritus, nec laudandus paterfamilias, Lips. 1716, 4to.

JOH. MATH. GESNERI Socrates sanctus pæderasta, in Comment. Soc. Reg. Götting. tom. II.

BOECKH, De simultate quam Plato cum Xenoph. exercuisse fertur.

The pretended Epistles of Socrates, lately published (cf. the bibliography at the head of § 88), are spurious. See CHPH. MEINERS, Judicium de quorundam Socraticorum reliquiis, in Comment. Soc. Gött. vol. V. p. 45, sqq.

ticularly by living all the while in constant habits of society, even with women of cultivated minds-the Hetairai. By these means, added to personal reflection, he became a venerable sage, whose whole life, in all his relations as man and citizen, presented the pure image of a beautiful humanity ennobled by morality. He became the instructor of his countrymen and of mankind, not for the love of lucre nor of reputation, but in consequence of a sense of duty. He was desirous above all things to repress the flight of speculative theories by the force of an imperturbable good sense; to submit the pretensions of science to the control of a higher authority, that of virtue; and to re-unite religion to morality. Without becoming, properly speaking, the founder of a school or system of philosophy, he drew around him, by the charms of his conversation, a crowd of young men and others, inspiring them with more elevated thoughts and sentiments, and forming several of those most devoted to him into very brilliant characters. He encountered the Sophists with the arms of good sense, irony, and the powerful argument of his personal character. A constant enemy to obscurantism and philosophical charlatanism (even in the circumstances of private life), he drew upon himself the hatred of many; under which he ultimately fell.' He was accused of contempt for the household gods, and of corrupting the youth by his doctrine. Being condemned to death, he drank the hemlock goblet, 400 B.Č., O1. XCV, 1.

On the Trial of Socrates, etc. by TH. CHRIST. TYSCHEN, in the Biblioth. der alten Literatur and Kunst., I and II fasc. 1786.

+ W. SUVERN, On the Clouds of Aristophanes, Berl. 1826. With additions, ibid. 1827.

M. CAR. EM. KETTNER, Socratem criminis majestatis accusatum vindicat. Lips. 1738, 4to.

SIG. FR. DRESIGII Epistola de Socrate justè damnato, Lips. 1738, 4to. +J. C. CHPH. NACHTIGALL, On the Condemnation of Socrates, etc. in the Deutsche Monatsschrift, June 1790, p. 127, sqq.

CAR. LUD. RICHTER, Commentatt. I, II, III, de Liberà quam Cicero vocat Socratis Contumaciâ, Cassel. 1788-90, 4to.

2 GE. CHRIST. IBBECKEN, Diss. de Socrate mortem minus fortiter subeunte, Lips. 1735, 4to.

Jo. SAM. MULLER, Ad Actum oratorio-dramaticum de Morte Socratis invitans, præfationis loco, pro Socratis fortitudine in subeundâ morte contra Ibbeckenium pauca disputat. Hamb. 1738, fol.

BRANDIS, Grundlinien der Lehre des Sokrates, im Rheinischen Archiv, 1, 1. St. § 118, f.

114. Although, properly speaking, Socrates was not the founder of a philosophical school, yet by his character, his example, by what he taught, and his manner of communicating it, he rendered, as a wise man and popular teacher, immense services to the cause of philosophy: calling the attention of inquirers to those subjects which are of everlasting importance to man, and pointing out the source from which our knowledge (to be complete) must be derived; from an investigation of our own minds (v0i oeavτóv).

GOD. WILH. PAULI Diss. de Philosophiâ Morali Socratis, Hal. 1714, 4to. EDWARDS, The Socratic System of Morals as delivered in Xenoph. Memorab. Oxford, 1773, 8vo.

LUD. DISSEN, Programma de Philosophia Morali in Xenophontis de Socrate Commentariis traditâ, Gött. 1812, 4to.

SCHLEIERMACHER, in the Abhandlung der Berlinen Akadem. d. w. 1814-15, § 39, f.

ROETSCHER'S Sokrates und sein Zeitalter.

:

115. The exclusive object of the philosophy of Socrates was the attainment of correct ideas concerning moral and religious obligation; concerning the end of man's being, and the perfection of his nature as a rational being; and lastly his duties; all of which he discussed in an unpretending and popular manner; appealing to the testimony of the moral sense within us. 1st. The chief happiness of man consists in knowing the good which it is his duty to do, and acting accordingly this is the highest exercise of his faculties, and in this consists empatia (right action). The means to this end are self-knowledge, and the habit of self-control. Wisdom (oopia), which he often represents as moderation (ow poovvn) may be said to embrace all the virtues; and on this account he sometimes called virtue a science. duties of man towards himself embrace also continence (ékpáτela) and courage (avopeia). Our duties towards (εγκράτεια) (ἀνδρεία). others are comprised in justice (dikatoσvvn); that is, the fulfilment of the laws, human and divine. Socrates appears to have been the first to make allusion to natural right or justice. 2ndly. Virtue and happiness (evdaμovía) he held XENOPH. Memorab. III, § 14, sqq.; Cf. I, 5; IV, 4, 5, 6. 3 ARIST. Eth. Nicom. VI, 13.

2 Ibid. III, 9, § 4 et 5.

4 XENOPH. Memorab. I, 5, § 4; IV, 5, § 6; IV, 6, § 10, sqq.

5 XENOPH. Memorab. IV, c. 4, c. 6, § 12. Tò quoεi dikaιov.

The

JAC. GUIL. FUERLIN, Diss. Historico-philosophica, Jus Naturæ Socraticum. Altdorf. 1719, 4to.

to be inseparably united. 3rdly. Religion (evoéßera), is the homage rendered to the Divinity by the practice of virtue; and consists in a continual endeavour to effect all the good which our faculties permit us to do. 4thly. The Supreme Being is the first author and the guardian of the laws of morals: his existence is proved by the order and harmony observable in all nature; both in the inward constitution of man, and the world without. (First instance of theology deduced from the order of nature). He is a rational but invisible Being, revealing himself only by his works. Socrates acknowledged, moreover, a Providence; (to which doctrine he superadded a belief in divination, and in a tutelar dæmon of his own); with the other attributes of the Divinity which have a reference to the good government of the world without, and in particular of man. He deemed that beyond this his inquiries ought not to extend. 5thly. The soul he considered to be a divine being, or similar to

1 XENOPH. Memorab. III, 9; IV, 2, § 34, sqq.; I, 6, § 10. Cic. Offic. III, 3. 2 XENOPH. Memorab. I, 1, § 2, 3; III. 9, 15.

3 Ibid. I, 2, 4; IV, 3, 4. PLAT. Apol. Socr. c. 15.

4 M. LUD. THEOP. MYLII Diss. de Socratis Theologia, Jen. 1714, 4to. J. FR. AUFSCHLAGER, Comment. (Præside J. SCHWEIGHÆUSER): Theologia Socratis ex Xenoph. Memorab. excerpta, Argent. 1785, 4to.

GOD. OLEARII Dissert. de Socratis Dæmonio, Lips. 1702; and in STANLEY, Hist. Philos. p. 130, sqq.

+ CHPH. MEINERS, On the Genius of Socrates, in part III of his Misc. Works.

On the Genius of Socrates, a Philosophical Inquiry, by AUG. G. UHLE, Hanov. 1778, 8vo. The same, previously published in the Deutsches Museum, 1777.

Parallel between the Genius of Socrates and the Miracles of Jesus Christ, by DOCTOR LESS, Göttingen, 1778, 8vo. (an Answer to the preceding.)

See also the Dissert. of SCHLOSSER, Götting. 1778, fasc. I, p. 71 and 76. On the Genius of Socrates, a new Philosophical Inquiry (by J.

CHPH. KENIG), Francf. and Leips. 1777, 8vo.

B. J. C. JUSTI, On the Genius of Socrates, Leips. 1779, 8vo.

ROB. NARES, An Essay on the Demon or Divination of Socrates, Lond. 1782, 8vo.

MATTH. FREMLING, De Genio Socratis, Lond. 1793, 4to.

+ J. C. NACHTIGALL, Did Socrates believe in his Genius? Deutsche Monatsschrift, 1794, fasc. XI, p. 326.

J. FR. SCHAARSCHMIDT, Socratis Dæmonium per tot secula a tot hominibus doctis examinatum quid et quale fuerit, num tandem constat? Nivemont. 1812, 8vo.

XENOPH. Memorab. I, 4; IV, 3.

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