God. He believed it to approximate the Divinity (ueréxe TOû OeOû) in respect of its reason and invisible energy, and on this account he considered it immortal.1 6thly. All the other arts and sciences which have no reference to practice he looked upon as vain, without object, and unacceptable to God: though he himself was not unacquainted with the inathematics, and the speculations of the Sophists." 116. The method of teaching observed by Socrates was a sort of intellectual obstetricism (ualevτIK); agreeable to which he made it his practice to elicit from each, in conversation, the principles of his convictions, employing induction and analogy. His own good natural sense suggested to him this method; which was admirably calculated to refute the Sophists by making them contradict themselves. In such encounters he armed himself with his characteristic eipwveia, or affected ignorance, and with his peculiar logic." 117. The services which Socrates has rendered to philosophy are twofold; negative and positive. Negative, inasmuch as he avoided all vain discussions; combated mere speculative reasoning on substantial grounds; and had the wisdom to acknowledge ignorance when necessary; but without attempting to determine accurately what is capable, and what is not, of being accurately known. Positive, inasmuch as he examined with great ability the ground directly submitted to our understanding, and of which Man 1 XENOPH. Memorab. I, 4, § 8, 9; IV, 3, § 14; Cyropæd. VIII, 7. PLAT. Phædo, c. 8, sqq. + W. G. TENNEMANN, Doctrines and Opinions of the Socratic School respecting the Immortality of the Soul, Jena, 1791, 8vo. 2 XENOPH. Memorab. I, 1, § 15; IV, 7. CIC. Tusc. Quæst. V, 3; Acad. I, 4. 3 FR. MENZII Diss. de Socratis Methode docendi non omnino præscribenda, Lips. 1740, 4to. J. CHRIST. LOSSIUS, De Arte Obstetricâ Socratis, Erf. 1785, 4to. FR. M. VIERTHALER, Spirit of the Socratic Method, Salzb. 1793; 8vo; second ed. Wurzb. 1810. + J. F. GRAFFE, The Socratic Method in its Primitive Form, Gött. 1794, third ed. 1798, 8vo. G. J. SIEVERS, De Methodo Socraticâ, Slesv. 1810. 4C. FR. FRAGUIER, Dissertation on the Irony of Socrates, his pretended Familiar Genius, and his Character; in the Memoirs of the Academy of Inscriptions, tom. IV. 5 XENOPH. Memorab. IV, 2. PLAT. Theætet., Meno, Sympos. p. 260. CIC. De Fin. II, 1. is the centre; without, however, any profound investigation of the different ideas and motives which influence practice. He first distinguished that Free-will and Nature were both under the dominion of certain laws; pointed out the proper sources of all knowledge; and finally laid open new subjects for philosophic research. CHR. FRED. LIEBEGOTT SIMON, Diss. (Præs. W. T. KRUG), de Socratis meritis in Philosophiam rite æstimandis, Viteb. 1797, 4to. FR. SCHLEIERMACHER, On the Merit of Socrates as a Philosopher; in the Memoirs of the Class of Philosophers of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Berlin, 1818, 4to. p. 50. 4 118. As Socrates divided his time among men of very different habits and dispositions, some more inclined to active life, some to retired study, a great number of disciples, in very different classes of society, and with very different views, were formed by his conversations, and still more by his method of teaching, so favourable to_the development of original thinking. The Athenians Xenophon (cf. § 113), Eschines, Simo,3 Crito, and the Theban Cebes, disseminated the principles of their master and lived agreeably to them. Among those who especially devoted themselves to the pursuits of philosophy, Antisthenes the Athenian, founder of the Cynic school, subsequently Aristippus, the chief of the Cyrenaic, and afterwards Pyrrho, gave their attention exclusively to questions of morals, and their practical application. Euclid of Megara, Phado of Elis, Menedemus of Eretria, were occupied with theoretical or metaphysical inquiries. The more comprehensive genius of Plato embraced at once both these topics, and united the two principal branches of Socraticism; either of which 1 CIC. De Oratore, III, 16. DIOG. LAERT. Prooem. sect. 10. 2 Born about 450, died 360 B.C. On the pretended letters of the Socratic philosophers, see the note on § 113. A. GOERING, Explicatur cur Socratici Philosophicarum, quæ inter se dissentiebant, Doctrinarum Principes, a Socratis Philosophiâ longius recesserint, Partenopol. 1816, 4to. 3 The authenticity of the two dialogues attributed to him is contested. See BоECKH, Simonis Socratici, ut videtur, Dialogi quatuor. Additi sunt incerti auctoris (vulgo Eschinis) Dialogi Eryxias et Axiochus, ed. AUG. BOECKH, Heidelb. 1810, 8vo. The writing known under the name of Пiva also attributed to a Stoic of Cyzicus, of a later age. KLOPFER, De Cebetis Tabulâ, Zwick. 1818, 4to. (Cebetis Tabula) is See also FR. G. separately was found sufficient to employ the generality of the Socratic philosophers. When we examine the spirit of these different schools, the Cynics, the Cyrenaics, the Pyrrhonists, and the Megareans, (as for the schools of Elis and Eretria, we are but imperfectly acquainted with them), and lastly, that of the Platonists, we find that the first four did little more than expand the ideas of Socrates, with partial views of his system; while the latter is distinguished by a boundless activity, allied to the true Socratic spirit; and which explored all the subjects of philosophic investigation. II. Partial Systems of the Socratics. I. Cynics. Authorities: Xenophon, Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, Plutarch, Sextus Empiricus, Diogenes Laertius, VI. GE. GOTTFR. RICHTERI Diss. de Cynicis, Lips. 1701, 4to. J. GE. MEUSCHENII Disp. de Cynicis, Kilon. 1703, 4to. CHRIST. GLIEB. JOECHER, Progr. de Cynicis nullâ re teneri volentibus, Lips. 1743, 4to. FR. MENTZII Progr. de Cynismo nec Philosopho nec homine digno, Lips. 1744, 4to. Antisthenes. GOTTLOB LUD. RICHTER, Diss. de Vitâ, moribus, ac placitis Antisthenis Cynici, Jen. 1724, 4to. LUD. CHR. CRELLII Progr. de Antisthene Cynico, Lips. 1728, 8vo. 119. Antisthenes, an Athenian,' at first the disciple of Gorgias, afterwards the friend and admirer of Socrates, was virtuous even to excess, and proportionably arrogant. He placed the supreme good of man in virtue; which he defined to consist in abstinence, and privations, as the means of assuring to us our independence of external objects: by such a course he maintained that man can reach the highest perfection, the most absolute felicity, and become like to the Deity. Nothing is so beautiful as virtue; nothing so deformed as vice; (7’ayaðà kaλà, τà kakà aioxpà); all things else are indifferent (adapopa), and consequently unworthy of our efforts to attain them. On these principles he built a system of practice so excessively simple, as to exclude even the decencies of social life; and for the same reasons Flourished about 380 B.C. 2 DioG. LAERT. VI, 11, sqq., 103, 106. professed a contempt for speculative science,' alleging that the natures of things are undefinable. He maintained also that opinions are all identical, and that no man can refute those of another. We must not omit his idea of one Divinity, superior to those adored by the populace. 120. In spite of the unattractive austerity of his way of life, which procured him the surname of 'Aλokvev, Antisthenes, by his lofty spirit and the eccentricity of his character and conduct, drew about him a great number of partisans, who were called Cynics; either from the Cynosarges, where their master taught, or from the rudeness of their manners. Among these we remark Diogenes of Sinope," said, on doubtful authority, to have lived in a tub; who gave himself the name of Kuwv, and made virtue and wisdom the subjects of his cynical asceticism; and after him, his disciple Crates of Thebes, and his wife, Hipparchia of Maronea; but these latter are not distinguished for having contributed any thing to the cause of science. Onesicritus of Egina, Metrocles the brother of Hipparchia, Monimus of Syracuse, Menedemus, and Menippus, are cited, but less frequently. The Cynic school finally merged in 'Notwithstanding, many works of his are quoted (DIOG. LAERT. VI, 15, sqq.) of which only two speeches remain to us, printed among the Orat. Græc. of REISKE, tom. VIII, p. 52, sqq. 9 ARIST. Metaph. VIII, 3; V, 29. CIC. De Nat. Deor. I, 13. 5 Born 414, died 324 B.C. PLAT. Sophist. p. 270. 4 DIOG. LAERT. VI, 13 et 16. 6 DIOG. LAERT. VI, 20-81. 7 The letters which bear his name (probably suppositious) are found in the Collection published by ALD. MANUTIUS, (reprinted at Geneva, 1606); twenty-two more exist, according to the notice of the unedited letters of Diogenes, etc., by M. BOISSONADE, Notices and Extracts from the MSS. in the King's Library, tom. X, p. ii, p. 122, sqq. For remarks on this philosopher consult : F. A. GRIMALDI, Life of Diogenes the Cynic, Naples, 1777, 8vo. CH. MAR. WIELAND, Zwroάrns paivóμevos, or Dialogues of Diogenes of Sinope, Leips. 1770; and among his works. FRIED. MENTZII Diss. de Fastu Philosophico, virtutis colore infucato, in imagine Diogenis Cynici, Lips. 1712, 4to. Jo. MART. BARKHUSII Apologeticum quo Diogenem Cynicum a crimine et stultitiæ et imprudentiæ expeditum sistit, Regiom. 1727, 4to. 8 DIOG. LAERT. VI, 85, sqq. Cf. Juliani Imperat. Orat. VI, ed. SPANGENB. p. 199. that of the Stoics it made an ineffectual attempt to rise again in the centuries immediately succeeding the birth of our Lord; but without displaying their spirit, merely by affecting the exterior of the ancient Cynics.1 II. Cyrenaics. Authorities: Xenophon, Aristotle, Cicero, Plutarch Sextus Empt ricus, Adv. Math. VII, 11, Diog. Laert. II. FRID. MENZII Aristippus Philosophus Socraticus, sive de ejus Vitâ, Moribus, et Dogmatibus, Commentarius, Hal. 1719. 4to. BATTEUX, Elucidation of the Morals of Aristippus, to explain a passage of Horace; in the Memoirs of the Academy of Inscriptions, tom. XXVI. +C. M. WIELAND, Aristippus, and some of his Contemporaries, 4 vols. Leips. 1800-1802. H. KUNHARDT, Diss. Philos. de Aristippi Philosophiâ Morali, quatenus illa ex ipsius Philosophi dictis secundum Laertium potest derivari, Helmst. 1796. 4to. WENDT, De Philosophia Cyrenaica, 1842. 3 121. Aristippus2 of Cyrene, a colonial city of Africa, born to easy circumstances, and of a light and sportive character, had, when he first attended the conversations of Socrates, an inclination for self-indulgence, which the latter eventually succeeded in rendering more elevated, without being able to eradicate. He made the summum bonum and the Télos of man to consist in enjoyment, accompanied with good taste and freedom of mind, το κρατεῖν καί μὴ ἡττᾶςθαι ἡδονῶν ἄριστον οὐ τὸ μὴ χρῆσθαι. Other pursuits and sciences he made very light of, especially the Mathematics." His grandson Aristippus, surnamed Metrodidactus (because instructed by his mother Arete, daughter of the elder Aristippus) was the first to develope, on these principles, a complete system of the philosophy of self-indulgence (noviopos.) This sort of philosophy takes for its basis the affections, principally of the body (mán); which it divides 1 Luciani Kvvirós, and other Dialogues. 2 Flourished 380 B.C. 3 DIOG. LAERT. II, 65, sqq. PLUTARCH. adv. Principem Indoct. II, XENOPH. Memorab. II, 1; et III, 8. P. 779 4 DIOG. LAERT. II, 75. 5 DIOG. LAERT. II, 75. J. GE. ECK, De Arete ARIST. Met. III, 2. |