Plin.; humum, Mart. Under conger-, humum, Suet.; aggerem, Caes. ; quod idoneum ad muniendum putant, Nep.; laticem, Lucr. Under eger-, humum, Ov. and Curt.; limum, Curt.; saxa, Plin.; aquam, Curt.; fluctus, Ov.; sanguinem, Plin. Under inger-, humum, Ov. ; fimum, Plin.; stercus, Colum.; saxa, Liv.; lapides, Plin.; aquam, Plaut. and Plin. Under reger-, tellurem, Ov.; humum, Colum.; lapides, Plin. Under sugger-, humum, Prop.

Another word which has a similar termination with ger-, and which, like it, has undergone a change of the final consonant, so as to conceal its connection with related words, is quer- of queror. The very meaning of this verb, "to complain," is such as to assure us that the original idea is yet to be found. In search of this we cannot do better than take for our guide two verbs of similar meaning, KOTтоμаι and plangor. These we know derive their secondary sense of "bewailing" from the physical idea of "beating oneself." They are both middle, or rather reflective verbs. The former is always so considered; but, unfortunately, Latin scholars have combined to ignore the existence of middle verbs in that language, although they are in fact as abundant in it as in its Eastern sister. How foolish was it in Forcellini to prefix the adverb passive to his quotation of such passages as scissæque capillos, Planguntur matres Calydonides, Ov. Met. viii. 526; Dumque volunt plangi, Met. v. 675. The very verb volunt, in the latter passage, should alone have checked him in the error. The passage from a middle verb plangi to the form planxere for planxere se, Ov. Met. iii. 505, is what was to be expected in a language where Cæsar, for example, uses the reflective form in all the imperfect tenses, revertitur, revertebatur, revertatur, reverteretur, reverti, but in the perfect tenses prefers revertit, revertererat, reverterit, revertisset, revertisse, no doubt because the perfect tenses of the middle voice can only be expressed by what our French grammars call compound tenses.

The question then having been suggested whether queror meant originally, "I beat myself," we have at any rate the satisfaction to see that such a meaning is in harmony with its reflective form; and we proceed next in search of some allied word wherein the notion of "beating" is apparent. In this search we come across quat-ere and its compound percut-ere. The simple verb quatere seems to be divided between the two ideas of "to strike" and "to shake," and we naturally give the preference to the first of these two notions, as that of "shaking" so easily flows from the other. The chief difficulty of the problem lies in the change of the letters r and t, for the preference in Latin of an e before an r need not be again considered. Now the Greek language abounds in examples of the change between the two consonants under consideration, as ἡπαρ ἡπατος, στέαρ, στεατ-ος, ἡμαρ ἡματος, ὕδωρ ύδατος, σκωρ and σκερ- (of σκερ-βολος*) σκατος. Again in a comparison of words belonging to the German language and our own, we find war-ein, where-in, alongside of the simple relative, was and what; dar-ein, there-in, alongside of das and that.

*That σkep-Boλos meant literally "dung or dirt-thrower," has long been pointed out, In a new edition of Messrs. Liddell and Scott's Dictionary it may be substituted, we will hope, for the derivation from Keap or es keap Baλλew, an etymology which those scholars evidently distrust, though they give it.

Even in Latin we find d and r alternating with each other. Thus no one will hesitate to treat as closely-related words auri- "ear," and audi- "hear," &c. It has also been unhesitatingly admitted that caduceo-, is only a Latin way of writing the Doric карvк-10-, or -ɛɩo-, "the herald's wand." But in instar, we have a word that has substituted an r for a t, for this word is immediately formed from the obsolete verb stat-, "stand." The existence of this archaic verb for the more common form sta-, we assume with Bopp, in his "Comparative Grammar," partly on the authority of the compound adjective, super-stit- (ncm. superstes), and partly on a comparison with our own verb, stand, stood, in which the final dental holds a fixed place. Thus instar will be the equivalent of our own in-stead, and the German an-statt, so that the fact of its taking a genitive is at once explained.

But we have further evidence of value in the existence of the adjective querquero-, whence querquera febris "an ague," a word certainly not familiar to scholars, yet supported by the authority of Plautus and Lucilius, as well as by the later writers Apuleius and Arnobius. The Greek language also has the Homeric verb kapkαp-, " tremble," present tense kaрkaip-w, and it would seem a sub. кaρкаρо-, trembling." The adjective querquero- may be regarded in two points of view, first, as a word formed by reduplication. This principle of formation is well known to all in the substantives mur-mur-, tur-tur-, su-surro-, and the verb tintinna-re; and if the language of vulgar life had come down to us in its entirety, we should probably have been acquainted with not a few words, such as butu-bata, in Naevius, to correspond to our own extensive phalanx of words, like fiddle-faddle, humptydumpty, zig-zag, &c. But on the other hand one is strongly tempted to class querquero- with the large family of adjectives in ero, such as ten-ero-, pig-ero-, rub-ero-. If this view be true, we have querq- or querqu- for the first element, in which, however, the final guttural will be probably only a suffix, as we know to be the case with our own verbs, talk, hark, pluck, from the simple verbs, tell, hear, pull. In these verbs the final k or ck, there is reason for believing, adds the idea of a diminutive, as is tolerably clear in the instance of pluck compared to pull." I, says the bull, because I can pull," are words which imply the possession of great force, whereas we but pluck a hair or a flower. But for our present purpose it is a matter of indifference which of the two views about the adjective be preferred. In either case we arrive at a base quer-, with the idea of " shaking ;" and thus, with the three words before us, viz. queror, "I beat myself or complain;" querquero-, "shaking;" and quat-io, "I beat or shake," we cannot well hesitate about referring them to a common origin.*

But we are afraid of occupying more space in the "Journal" with inquiries of this nature; and the examples that have been given in the thirteen papers now completed, will perhaps be found more than sufficient to prove the advantages of a careful induction in Latin Etymology. Grouville, Aug. 16. CLAUDIUS.

* It may be useful to note that in the perfect participles ques-tus and quas-sus we have an 8 common to the two verbs.

ON CORPORAL PUNISHMENT.

No. III.

*

AN age which shrinks from the idea of coercion would have the acquisition of knowledge made purely pleasant, and to make it pleasant would have it made very easy. The miscellaneous knowledge now in fashion, with all its flattering and deceptive variety, admits of being made easy to an almost unlimited extent. Dabbling with the natural sciences, listening to sermons on pebbles, and lectures on cryptogamous plants in hedge bottoms-this kind of education, if so it may be called, requires little discipline, little of that cogent regulation which is calculated to strengthen the intellect, and restrain it from weak vagaries; but a mind formed on this plan, or anything like this plan, will be feeble, because, from the instructor's dread of coercion, it will rarely be tasked to the extent of its powers; and probably arrogant, because it will never have known difficulty or defeat. In the case of the ancient languages, if really taught, there is far less chance of this trifling; but then, in the acquisition of these, there will be a painful, though by no means profitless sense of labour. What Goldsmith says, is perfectly true:- "Whatever pains a master may take to make the learning of the languages agreeable to his pupil, he may depend upon it, it will be at first extremely unpleasant. The rudiments of every language, therefore, must be given as a task, not as amusement. Attempting to deceive children into instruction of this kind, is ouly deceiving ourselves." Where these form a main part of the education, a master will find in most instances, if he is at the pains to give his attention to his pupils individually, that he must either encounter resistance or detect evasion. We must beware how we allow ourselves to be misled by exceptions in this matter. Schools there doubtless are, not a few, which have abjured almost every species of severity, and which are still, from time to time, sending forth distinguished men. The professed absence of corporal punishment will often, where other circumstances are favourable, bring numbers, and out of these numbers it would be strange if a clever master could not turn out yearly a sufficient number of young men of ambition and promise, to act as advertisements, and keep the school in good odour. In this way a delusion may be kept up almost indefinitely. Parents are tempted by this fallacious success to send boys to whom the deplogisticated system of discipline is wholly inapplicable; and what is done in these cases by the master, who has bound himself, or is bound by others to this system? What can he do? He tries them for a longer or shorter time, according to his patience or integrity, and if it does not answer, as in many cases answer it will not, he turns from them tacitly, of course, not often professedly, in disgust and despair, to those who will better repay his labour: many a pupil leaves such schools as these a kind of reprobate in his master's eyes, but a conqueror in his own. Parents are as defenceless here, as they are credulous; they take it for granted that their sons are edu

Essay on Education.

cated, for the cases are comparatively rare in which any subsequent test is applied to prove what has been done. The true proof of a schoolmaster's worth, is to be found in the condition, not of the upper but of the lower half of each of his classes. Quackery and puffery fail here. Arnold hit the mark when he said,* What we ought to do is, to send up boys who will not be plucked." To make moderate requirements, to insist that no boy shall fall greatly beneath these requirements, to keep his team together, this is a master's duty, this his skill; to deal with the quick-witted and industrious is easy enough, but to make the inattentive and the idle fairly grapple with their work, will often require not only patience but severity.

Before proceeding we ought not to omit to mention a very common fallacy often used to buttress up the weak cause of a soothing and indulgent system of instruction. We mean a too favourable statement of the capacities and motives of the young for making progress in learning. Prove that a child can learn easily, and that he greatly loves to learn, it is easy to proceed further, and prove that it is unnecessary to make him learn. Now in some respects, as far as capacity and mental condition go, the young may possess some advantages over the more mature; but then each of these is counterbalanced by a corresponding defect. Is the memory at once strong and impressible? it is also undiscriminating is the attention eager and easily attracted? for the same reason it is diverted no less easily. Are the perceptions quick? they generally want steadiness and accuracy. If the boy has no discouraging sense of the boundlessness of knowledge, it is because he does not see it in its connections. If he is free from that sickening and delusive feeling of its uselessness which often, for a time, almost paralyses the man, it is because he rarely views knowledge with an eye to its utility. It is for discipline to separate the advantages from the attendant evils. Then for the motives. Let a practical schoolmaster think over his fifty or sixty boys, and assign sincerely to each the motive by which he believes him to be influenced. A sense of duty, with love of parents and masters, and a wish to please them; a desire to acquire knowledge for its own sake; a love of distinction and preeminence; are a third part of the entire number thus influenced? scarcely; and the rest by the dread of impending danger of some kind; which last indeed is often required as subsidiary to the others, when the sense of duty becomes languid, as it often does in the best and wisest of us; when the desire of excellence is wavering and doubting whether the best field for its display is the class-room or the cricket-ground; when the desire of knowledge is burning to indulge itself with "Tales of other, Lands," or bent on making progress in the mere mechanical arts of rigging a cutter, or, alas! of spinning a cockchafer. This ought not to appear an unfair estimate of the motives of the young. Surely we are not to expect from them, with their natural volatility and waywardness, what, in point of fact, we do not find in their seniors. Though the mind of the nation may be fairly said to be awake, though readers and books are numerous, and the importance of knowledge is highly appreciated; still, take the mass of the middle classes the country

* Life and Correspondence, vol. i., p. 132.

through, deduct the mere newspaper and novel-readers, and those who study their trades or professions from compulsion, and for a livelihood, and those who employ their leisure in anything like serious or regular study with a high object or lofty motive of any kind will be found to be comparatively few. When therefore a master boasts of scholars who are actuated by none other than noble impulses, we may shrewdly suspect him of accommodating his statements and his arguments to his practice in matters of discipline.

That men in earnest about their profession endeavour to obviate the evil effects of a lax code of discipline, we do not deny. Some of those who are committed to a lenient system sincerely regret that they are thus restricted. A gentleman at the head of one of our most important places of public instruction, where corporal punishment is prohibited, after many years' experience there, told us, that, though he had accommodated his management as far as possible to the prescribed system, he considered the absolute prohibition of corporal punishment to be a decided evil. Some even zealous instructors who have professed to set aside the rod and cane in education, have recourse in extreme cases (to the great damage of their theory) to violent shakings, pushings, lugging the hair, and other irregular inflictions. This was the case with a late master of an important public school in Londona man zealous, if ever man was, about the success of his school, and the progress of his pupils; the experienced have told us that his hand was of such capacity that he could box both ears at once: under his determined energy his system fairly broke down. Some, again, who do not choose to give themselves the pain of this kind of punishment, and who feel at the same time that they can do little good without it, either dismiss the worthless altogether, or reconcile it with their principles to take no pains with those boys who will take no pains for themselves. The conscientiousness of thus giving up bad cases, is, we think, very questionable, unless it can be proved, which it certainly never has been, that the infliction of corporal punishment is decidedly wrong. A good physician does not decline a difficult case, and a man is not fit to be a schoolmaster who refuses to cope with one. The scapegraces must go somewhere from the man who is too delicate to deal with any but good and clever boys.

Others again, will endeavour by endless repetitions, explanations, and expostulations, to remedy idleness, obstinacy, and inattention: this is all very well supposing it to be the first, second, and third duty of a schoolmaster to avoid corporal correction, otherwise not. Where numbers are to be educated, a man has only a right to bestow a limited portion of time on each pupil; and he is not justified in devoting any very large share of his time to those cases in which a more decided exercise of authority would be more quickly efficacious. Some masters seem to think nothing of the expenditure of time in scolding, talking, re-explaining to those whose inattention makes a first and second explanation insufficient. Half the hour which ought to be devoted to honest straightforward work with an entire class, is thus often laid out in assisting or rebuking the idlest boys in it, or in hearing the same lesson over and over again, which the pupils, if compelled, might have learnt perfectly at first.