so widely that no opinion is orthodox. This the novice in debate soon discovers. He rises, and with great satisfaction proceeds to enlighten his hearers upon the subject under discussion, employing "strong assertion without proof, declamation without argument, and violent censure without dignity or moderation." But presently, as he sees the bottom knocked out of his arguments, he becomes disgusted with his second-hand opinions and begins to think for himself. Nothing is so conducive to thought as the direct contact of mind with mind. Nothing so widens one's mental vision as an effort to define one's position upon a given subject. Nothing so clearly and forcibly shows a man the unstable foundations of his opinions as an attempt to support these opinions in the face of unsparing criticism.

2. It stimulates logical thinking and accurate expression. Perhaps no study equals debate in the acquirement of the power of logical thinking combined with clear expression. The real debater cannot indulge in "glittering generalities," but has a definite issue on which to speak. The faults of vapid utterances, so common in formal oratory, of attempts at mere rhetoric, and of the general lack of unity and coherence so common in public speech, are thus avoided. "I believe that the next generation," says President Hadley of Yale, "will recognize that precision of thought is what distinguishes the first-rate speaker from the second-rate speaker; and that this precision can be obtained if, instead of hurling facts of science or lan

guage or history at his impervious skull, we open his eyes to the infinite possibilities of close thought and precise expression in all fields of knowledge."

3. It encourages thorough thinking.-It is highly essential that you know what you are talking about in a debate. Superficial knowledge is easily detected by your audience. You must "drink deep from the Pierian spring" if you would succeed in a debate. Our foremost forensic speakers in Congress and elsewhere have often greatly astonished their audiences with their thorough knowledge of the facts and circumstances related to the subject under discussion.

4. Debating produces broad-mindedness and toleration. It does this by compelling attention to both sides of a question-for any really debatable question always has two sides. Practice in debate cultivates the habit of looking at truth, not in isolated and fragmentary forms, but in all its relationships. It is unfortunate for any man or class of men to be placed under such conditions that their opinions are given out as authoritative and received as such-or, if not so received, are delivered when no opportunity is afforded for their utterances to be disputed. Hence the tendency of preachers and teachers to become dogmatic and narrow. Lawyers, on the other hand, are, as a class, liberalminded and tolerant. Is not this because of the practice in debate that their profession affords? The hard knocks they give and receive make them tolerant of antagonistic views. So, the practice

that students have in discussing either the affirmative or negative side of a debatable question tends to remove unfounded prejudice and narrowness. The trained mind is broad, impartial, and comprehensive in its vision; and these are the elements of mind necessary to draw conclusions and solve problems.

5. Lastly, debating has a practical value.-For the lawyer, minister, teacher, salesman-for every one -there is no form of public speaking that is of greater value than skill in oral argument. Scores of public men have gone on record by attesting to the value of debating in the old literary societies when they were students. And our successful men of the future will come out of our present debating societies. The man who can think on his feet and who can deliver his thoughts in a forcible and effective manner can usually get what he wants. Thorough preparation, logical thinking, and accurate diction, combined with a persuasive and effective delivery, furnish an open sesame to leadership and success in any worthy endeavor.

II. THE ELEMENTS OF DEBATE

Whenever people disagree in a discussion, and produce reasons to support their respective views, they are debating. Debate is, therefore, a far more common exercise, in all relations of life, than we are wont to think. Its object is to discover truth, to determine upon which side of a given question the truth lies. Debating is not contentiousness;

it is a logical discussion for the purpose of elucidating thought or influencing action. "Argument, in the sense of controversy, seems to be, on the whole, less seriously taken than it used to be; argument, in the sense of care in forming opinions, seems to be, on the whole, more seriously cultivated." Even in societies organized for the purpose, debate should have for its object the vindication of some truth, and the question should be seriously disputed.

Since those who engage in a debate are seekers of truth, it is pertinent to inquire, What is meant by the truth? And in this connection a few other terms need explanation:

1. Facts are entities, relationships, or any phenomena that actually exist. We see the stars. If stars are real and actually exist, their existence is a fact. Stars shine. This expresses a relationship between two facts.

2. Ideas and opinions are merely man's conception of these facts and relationships. Stars are suns with planets revolving around them. Perhaps. "If a man die shall he live again?" We think, hope, and preach that he will. However, many persons remain unconvinced.

3. When our opinions agree with the facts they are called truths. Columbus discovered America.

This is an undisputed fact.

4. A Proposition is the expression of relationship between two or more ideas. Radium cures cancer. A proposition may be true or it may not be true.

1 Sidgwick, The Process of Argument, p. 197.

5. An Assertion is an affirmation or a denial without proof. A republic is the best form of government. If no proof is offered, it is an assertion.

6. An Assumption is an opinion accepted as true without proof. A straight line is the shortest distance between two points.

7. A Presumption is a statement considered true until proved otherwise. A man is presumed to know the law. A nation should protect its citizens. 8. Proof is sufficient reason for asserting a proposition as true. It includes evidence and argument.1 9. Evidence is any data from which an inference may be drawn.

10. Argumentation is the process of establishing the truth or falsity of a proposition.

11. Debating is the science and art of producing in others, through proper appeals to the intellect and emotions, by means of evidence and argument, a belief in the ideas which we wish them to accept.

Note that the foregoing definition denominates debating as both a science and an art. "A science," says Jevons, "teaches us to know, and an art to do." In discovering and classifying the means whereby a man's understanding is convinced and his feelings moved, we are dealing with debate as a science; in employing these means as applied to a given question, we are dealing with debate as an art. And these two processes are inseparable in debating. The debater must both acquire and give; he must be able both to find reasons and to

1 Wharton, Evidence, p. 3.