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⚫ into pleasurable and the reverse; giving the preference to the pleasures of the senses. Its degraded object is not εὐδαιμονία, but merely present and actual enjoyment, (ἡδονὴ Ev KivýσE); allowing something to wisdom and virtue (as they were pleased to term them) as means of attaining thereto. The philosophy of these teachers (neglecting logic and the natural sciences) was confined to what they called a system of morals, built entirely on that of the sensations, as being the only objects of knowledge concerning which we are not liable to err (καταληπτέα καὶ ἀδιάYevoTa), and at the same time the only criteria of virtue.3

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122. This species of philosophy, when it came to be compared with our notions of Truth, Justice, and Religion, gave birth to a subdivision of the sect of Cyrenaics, called also Hedonics (noovikoi). Theodorus (of Cyrene ?), surnamed the Atheist, a disciple of the second Aristippus, and probably also of the Stoic Zeno, the Sceptic Pyrrho, and others, taking, like his predecessors, Sensation for the basis of his argument, ended by denying the existence of all objects of perception; disallowed the reality of an universal criterium of Truth, and thus opened the way for the Sceptic school; framing to himself a system (Indifferentism), which excluded all difference of right and wrong, in Morals and in Religion, and assuming pleasure or gaiety (xapà), ast the final end of existence. His followers denominated themselves Oeodwpetot. His disciple, Bio of Borysthenis,' and Euhemerus (according to some, of Messene), made an

1 DIOG. LAERT. II, 86, sqq. 2 Cf. DIOG. LAERT. II, 92. 3 DIOG. LAERT. II, 86, sqq. 191-198.

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EUSEB. Præp. Evang. XIV,
CIC. Acad. Quæst. IV, 46.
SEXT. EMPIR. Adv. Math. VII, 11, 15,
4 Flourished about 300 B.C.
97, sqq.

5 SUIDAS, 8. h. v. DIOG. LAERT. 86 et 6 SEXTUS, Adv. Math. VII, 191. sqq. p. 177. EUSEB. Præp. Evang. XIV, 18.

PLUTARCH. Adv. Colot. XIV, DIOG. LAERT. II, 93, 97-100.

7 Bio the Borysthenite, called also the Sophist, lived in the middle of the third century B.C.

See BAYLE'S Dictionary; et MARIUS HOOGVLIET, Specimen Philosophico-criticum continens Diatriben de Bione Borysthenita, etc. Lugd. Bat. 1821, 4to.

8 The fragments of his work, entitled 'Iɛpà ȧvaypaoń, in Diod. Sic.. Bibl. Hist. ed. VESSELING, tom. II, 633; and among the fragments of ENNIUS, who had translated them into Latin. Idem. ed. HIESSEL,

application of this doctrine to the religion then prevalent1. Hegesias, who in the time of Ptolemy taught at Alexandria, a native of Cyrene and pupil of the Cyrenaic Parabates, was equally decided in maintaining the indifference of right and wrong, but asserted that perfect pleasure is unattainable in our present state (ἀδύνατον καὶ ἀνυπαρκτόν), and concluded that death was therefore preferable to life. Hence he was surnamed Πεισθάνατος. He became the founder of a sect, the Hegesiacs.

123. Anniceris of Cyrene, who appears, like Hegesias, to have been a disciple of Paræbates, and to have taught at Alexandria, endeavoured, without renouncing the principles of his sect, to get rid of their revolting consequences, and to reconcile them with our sentiments in favour of friendship and patriotism, by pleading the refined pleasures of benevolence:3 thus making the Cyrenaic system approximate that of Epicurus. The success of the latter caused the downfal of the Cyrenaic school.

III. Pyrrho and Timon.

Authorities: Cic. De Fin. II, 13; IV, 16. Sextus Empiricus. Diog. Laert. IX, 61, sqq. 105, sqq. Euseb. Præp. Evang. XIV. 18. Cf. the bibliography § 38, II, a.

G. P. DE CROUZAZ, Examination of Pyrrhonism, Ancient and Modern, folio, Hague, 1733 (French). Extracts of the same work in FORMEY, Triumph of Evidence; with a Prelim. Dissert. by M. DE HALLER, Berlin, 1756, 2 vols. 8vo.

J. ARRHENII Diss. de Philosophiâ Pyrrhoniâ, Ups. 1708, 4to.

p. 212. See also concerning Euhemerus and Euhemerism: + SEVIN, Researches concerning the Life and Works of Euhemerus; + FOURMONT, Dissertation on the Work of Euhemerus, entitled 'Iɛpà ȧvaypapý, etc.; and FOUCHER, Memoirs on the System of Euhemerus, in the Mem. of the Academy of Inscriptions, tom. VIII, XV, XXXIV (all French).

1 CIC. De Nat. Deor. I, 42. PLUTARCH. Adv. Stoicos, XIV, p. 77; De Is. et Osir., tom. VII, p. 420, ed. REISKE. SEXTUS, Adv. Math. IX, 17, 51, 55. DIOG. LAERT. II, 97; et IV, 46-58. DIOD. SICUL. V, 11 et 45. LACT Div. Instit. I. 11.

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2 CIC. Tusc. Quæst. I, 34. DIOG. LAERT. II, 86, 93, sqq. VAL. MAX. XVIII, 9.

J. J. RAMBACH, Progr. de Hegesia #sı-faváry, Quedlimb. 1771, 4to. Idem. in his Sylloge Diss. ad rem Litterariam pertinentium, Hamb. 1790, 8vo. No. IV. 3 DIOG. LAERT. II, 96, 97.

GOD. PLOUCQUET, Diss. de Epochâ Pyrrhonis, Tübing. 1758, 4to. J. G. MUNCH, Diss. de Notione ac Indole Scepticismi, nominatim Pyrrhonismi, Altd. 1796, 4to.

JAC. BRUCKERI Observatio de Pyrrhone à Scepticismi Universalis maculâ absolvendo, Miscell. Hist. Philos. p. 1.

C. VICT. KINDERVATER, Diss. Adumbratio Questionis, an Pyrrhonis doctrinâ omnis tollatur virtus, Lips. 1789, 4to.

RICARD. BRODERSEN, De Philosophiâ Pyrrhoniâ, Kil. 1819, 4to. THORBECKE, Responsio ad Quest. Philos. etc. numquid in Dogmaticis oppugnandis inter Academicos et Scepticos interfuerit (?), 1820, 4to. J. FRID. LANGHEINRICH, Diss. I et II de Timonis Vitâ, Doctrinâ, Scriptis, Lips. 1729-31.

ZIMMERMAN, Ueber den Ursprung, das Wesen und die historische Bedeutung der Pyrrhonischen Philosophie, 1843.

124. Pyrrho of Elis, originally a painter, together with his master Anaxarchus accompanied Alexander in his campaigns, and subsequently became a priest at Elis. In common with Socrates (whom in some particulars he resembled) he maintained that virtue alone is desirable; that every thing else, even science, is useless and unprofitable. To support this last proposition, which was also connected with the Irony of Socrates, he alleged that the contradiction existing between the different principles supported by disputants (ἀντιλογία, ἀντίθεσις τῶν λόγων), demonstrates the incomprehensibility of things (ȧKaTaλnia). All this he argued, should make a philosopher withold his assent (ééxe), and endeavour to maintain an åπaleia, or freedom from all impressions. By this doctrine, Pyrrho and his school attached a special meaning on the word Okés (examination), which had already been frequently employed more loosely. His friend and pupil Timon, a physician of Phlius, and previously a pupil of Stilpo at Megara, carried still farther this system of scepticism, which had begun on moral principles, and maintained with

1 Flourished about 340, died about 288 B.C.

CIC. De Orat. III, 17; De Finib. III, 3; Acad. Quæst. II, 42.

3 DIOG. LAERT. IX, 70, sqq. SEXT. EMPIR. Hyp. Pyrrh. I, 209, sqq. AUL. GELL. XI, 5.

Hence the Pyrrhonists are also called Sceptics, in the proper sense of the word: they have been more properly denominated Ephectics (from Tox, suspension of judgment), Zetetics, and Aporetics (investigatora and doubters).

• Flourished about 272 B.C

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sarcastic bitterness the following propositions' against th Dogmatics: the doctrines of the Dogmatics are founded not on substantial principles, but mere hypotheses:—the objects of their speculations do not come within the compass of certain knowledge:--all science is tc be accounted vain, as not contributing to happiness :-in questions of practice we ought to give ear only to the voice of our own nature, that is, of our emotions; and by withholding the assent in matters of speculation (aparia), should endeavour to retain the mind in a state of unalterable repose (àrapağía).a A question has been raised whether the Ten sources of doubt (τόποι οι τρόποι τῆς ἐποχῆς), of the Sceptics, are the work of Pyrrho or Timon. The latter left behind him no disciple of note.

IV. Megaric School.

Authorities: Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, Sextus Empiricus, Diogenes Laertius, II. J. CASP. GUNTHERI Diss. de Methodo Disputandi Megaricâ, Jen. 1707, 4to.

J. ERN. JUNN. WALCH, Commentatio de Philosophiis Veterum Criticis, Jen. 1755, 4to.

G. LUD. SPALDING, Vindicia Philosophorum Megaricorum, Berol. 1793, 8vo.

FERD. DEYCKS, De Megaricorum Doctrinâ ejusque apud Platonem et Aristotelem vestigiis, Bon. 1827, 8vo.

J. G. HAGER, Dissert. de Modo Disputandi Euclidis, Lips. 1736, 4to. See also BAYLE.

H. RITTER, The Philosophy of the Megaric School. Rhein. Mus. 2nd year, 3rd No.

125. Euclid of Megara, had studied the philosophy of the Eleatæ previously to his becoming a disciple of Socrates.

1 Particularly in his satiric poem Σ{\λoɩ, whence he has been occasionally denominated Sillographus. Fragments of the three books of this poem, and of his work Iɛọì aiø¤ýσɛwv, are to be found partly in the Dissert. quoted above (of IS. FR. LANGHEINRICH), and partly in HEN. STEPH. Poes. Philos. and among the Analecta of BRUNCK, tom. II and III.

* For an account of what is meant by Dogmatism, see §§ 55, 56, 57.-ED,

2 Cic. Fin. II, 21, 13; IV, 16; Offic. I, 2; De Orat. III, 17. DIOG. LAERT. IX, 61, sqq. 103, sqq. EUSEB. Præp. XIV, 18. SEXTUS, Adv. Math. III, 2; XI, § 171; VII, § 30.

3 See, subsequently, under the art. Ænesidemus.

+ Flourished about 400 B.C.

After the death of his master, having, together with the most of his other pupils, taken refuge at Megara, he established there a school; the principal object of which was the cultivation of Dialectics, on the principles of Socrates and the Eleatæ. The subtilties of this sect, which were sufficiently censured of old (witness the appellation of EpioTikoi), have been still more severely condemned by the moderns; who, it must be allowed, have not been able to collect a sufficiently accurate account of what their practice really was. They appear to have pointed out the difficulties which attend thinking and cognition, Rationalism and Empiricism and to have pursued certain Dogmatics to their last defences, particularly Aristotle and Zeno. Practical philosophy appears, with the exception of Stilpo, to have engaged the attention of few of this school.

126. Euclid gave as it were a new edition of the Eleatic doctrine: Good is one (ev tò ȧyalóv); which alone is real and invariable reasoning by analogy he rejected (dà apaBoys Moyovs); attacking not so much the premises assumed, as the conclusions drawn (énipopáv). Eubulides of Miletus, and his disciple Alexinus of Elis (nicknamed ('Eλéyğıvos), are only known as the authors of certain captious questions (avra) which they levelled at the Empirics, and in particular at Aristotle, such as the σωρείτης, the ψευδόμενος, the κερατίνης, etc. Diodorus surnamed Cronus, of Jasus in Caria, the pupil, according to some, of Eubulides, denied the twofold significations of words, investigated the notions of possibilitiy (Tepi dvvatŵv), and speculated concerning the truth of hypothetical judgments (To ovvημ uévov); and finally advanced some arguments to disprove the reality of motion. His disciple Philo the Dialectic,

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SEXT.

1 Cic. Acad. Quæst. IV, 42. DIOG. LAERT. II, 106, 107. 2 DIOG. LAERT. 11, 108, sqq. CIC. Acad. Quæst. IV, 29. EMPIR. Adv. Math. VII, 13; cf. IX, 108. A. GELL. N. A. XVI, 2. 3 A. GELL. Noct. Att. XI, 12.

4 ARIST. De Interpret. c. IX; Metaph. VIII, 3. Cro. De Fato, Frag. VII, IX.

5 SEXT. EMPIR. Adv. Log. II, 11, 114, sqq.; Adv. Phys. II, 115; Pyrrh. Hyp. II, 110; Adv. Math. VIII, 112, sqq. Cic. Acad. Quæst. II, 47.

SEXTUS EMPIR. Adv. Math. X, 85, sqq.; IX, 363; Adv. Phys. II.

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